Vitamin C for Joint Pain

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, meaning it is not stored in your body and you must consume adequate amounts from your diet throughout the day. Struggling through the day with chronic pain in your hands, knees or other joints can be exhausting. Getting enough vitamin C, either through diet or supplements, can help relieve or prevent pain in your joints. If you decide to take a vitamin C supplement, discuss it with your physician first to ensure it is the best option for you.

Young woman about to pour a glass of orange juice. Photo Credit Wavebreakmedia Ltd/Wavebreak Media/Getty Images

Antioxidant Functions of Vitamin C

Most commonly, vitamin C is known for its ability to keep your immune system functioning at its best. Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant in your body by fighting off free radicals, which are highly active substances that permanently damage cells and tissues. This powerful vitamin has been shown to regenerate other antioxidants, such as the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E, explains the Office of Dietary Supplements.

Effects on Joint Pain

Your body needs vitamin C for the synthesis of collagen. This substance is a component of ligaments, tendons, cartilage and other types of connective tissue. When cartilage breaks down, you may experience pain in joints and have an increased risk of fractures or damage to connective tissue. For example, osteoarthritis is a form of chronic inflammation in joints that causes the breakdown of cartilage, causing bones to rub together and pressure to form in joints. Ingesting your vitamin C each day allows your body to produce collagen to keep cartilage strong, decreasing the pain you experience. Additionally, the antioxidant properties of vitamin C help protect cartilage, limiting its destruction, the University of Maryland reports.

Benefits for Fractures

A study published in the "Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery" in 2007 reports that vitamin C can reduce pain in wrist fractures. Subjects in the study had confirmed broken wrists and were given varying levels of vitamin C, 200 mg, 500 mg or 1,000 mg, for 50 days. The study concludes that consuming 500 mg of vitamin C for 50 days can benefit pain in wrists after fractures. If your joint pain is fracture related, taking a daily dose of vitamin C may help alleviate some of your pain.

Proper Dosage

The recommended dietary allowance, or RDA, for vitamin C is 90 mg per day for men and 75 mg for women. If you are pregnant, your dosage increases to 85 mg and breast-feeding ups your intake to 120 mg. Smoking increases oxidative stress, or free radicals, throughout your body. This can increase your joint pain, since free radicals damage cartilage. Being a frequent smoker increases your vitamin C needs by an additional 35 mg per day.

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Gluten Free Meal Plans

Eating a gluten-free diet can be difficult at first; however, making a few simple changes will make it easier. Identifying which foods and ingredients contain gluten is the key to creating a gluten-free meal plan. Eating a gluten-free diet does not mean you have to give up the foods you enjoy, as there are many gluten-free alternatives. Plan ahead by creating a meal plan using naturally gluten-free foods as well as incorporating alternative gluten-free products.

Salmon filets with herbs and spices Photo Credit OlenaMykhaylova/iStock/Getty Images

Identify Gluten-Free Foods

An important step in creating a gluten-free diet plan is to identify foods that are naturally gluten-free. Some naturally gluten-free foods include fruits, vegetables, meat, seafood, eggs, butter, rice, nuts, seeds, honey, molasses, oils, and herbs. Meat and seafood should be prepared plain, without breading in order to be gluten-free. Another important step is to identify gluten-free packaged foods while being aware that some ingredients may have hidden sources of gluten, such as dry-roasted nuts, seasonings and soy sauce.

Planing Ahead

Creating a gluten-free menu ahead of time each week can be helpful if you find yourself confused about what to eat come mealtime. There are many gluten-free options to choose from, especially now that more gluten-free brands are available at supermarkets. While shopping, you can find many gluten-free versions of almost any wheat-containing food, such as bagels, waffles and pancakes. These are often made with a mix of gluten-free flours such as rice flour, quinoa flour and millet flour. Choose naturally gluten-free foods, such as fruits, meat and vegetables, as often as possible.

Eating Out

Your meal plan may have some free space in it for eating out. It’s best to call ahead or do some research prior to leaving the house to find out which restaurants carry gluten-free menu items. Many restaurants now post their gluten-free menus online. When traveling, you can also bring along your own food, such as a sandwich made with gluten-free bread. This ensures that you always have something gluten-free to eat.

Sample Menu Items

A sample breakfast menu might consist of waffles, made with gluten-free flour, and fresh strawberries -- or an omelet with fresh vegetables and hash browns. Sample lunch items could include a pizza made with gluten-free flour and topped with vegetables or brown rice with chicken. An example of a gluten-free dinner could include fish with vegetables and rice or a hamburger on a gluten-free bun with a tossed salad. Snack ideas include gluten-free rice crackers and cheese or celery sticks with peanut butter.

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What to Eat & Not to Eat on a Gluten-Free Diet

If you have celiac disease or gluten intolerance, your body is unable to properly digest gluten, a protein in wheat and some other grains. If this is the case, consuming gluten can result in diarrhea, cramping and bloating -- and you may have to follow a gluten-free diet to remain symptom-free. Understanding which foods contain gluten can help you know what you can and cannot eat.

Breads and rolls. Photo Credit DAJ/amana images/Getty Images

Choose Gluten-Free Grains

Wheat is forbidden on a gluten-free diet because it contains gluten. You cannot eat wheat products such as white or wheat bread, pretzels, pasta or wheat-containing breakfast cereals. Other gluten-containing grains to avoid include rye, triticale, bulgur, barley, couscous and durum. You can have gluten-free grains such corn, flax, amaranth, millet, quinoa and all forms of rice. You can use nut and soy flours as alternatives to wheat flour if you are baking.

Know Which Foods Are Naturally Gluten-Free

You can have most products that do not contain grains. A gluten-free diet allows all fresh fruits and vegetables and all frozen and canned fruits and vegetables as long as they contain no sauce. Breaded vegetables are off-limits, according to New York University Langone Medical Center. You can have milk, cheese and cream cheese, tofu, fresh meat, poultry and fish and eggs. Nuts and peanuts are naturally gluten-free as well. Avoid breaded meats, poultry and fish.

Watch for Unexpected Gluten-Containing Foods

Some foods, such as sauces and marinades, can unexpectedly contain small amounts of gluten. NYU Langone Medical Center warns that you need to avoid teriyaki sauce, soy sauce and malt vinegar on a gluten-free diet. Many meat marinades and fruits in thickened sauces contain gluten. Use gluten-free foods instead to flavor your foods. You can have mustard, herbs and other vinegars on a gluten-free diet. Beer and some nondairy beverages, such as soy and rice milk, have gluten, but you can have distilled alcohol.

Other Considerations

Some foods, such as yogurt and oats, are unlikely to contain gluten, but they may. Only consume varieties of such products if their labels claim that they are free of gluten. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates labeling claims for the food industry and sets strict standards on when foods may carry gluten-free labels. Some people choose to follow a gluten-free diet before being diagnosed with gluten sensitivity or celiac disease, but NYU Langone Medical Center explains that clinical researchers have not uncovered any benefits to doing this.

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NEOPRENE

Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. Neoprene is sold either as solid rubber or in latex, form, and is used in a wide variety of applications, such as laptop, sleeves, orthopedic braces (wrist, knee, etc.), electrical insulation, liquid and sheet applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and automotive fan belts.

A neck seal, wrist seal, manual vent, inflator, zip and fabric of a neoprene dry suit. Here the soft thin rubber-like seal material at neck and wrists is made from non-foam neoprene for elasticity; the blue area is a thin blue knit fabric laminated onto spongy foamed neoprene for insulation

Productions

Neoprene is produced by free-radical polymerization of chloroprene. In commercial production, this polymer is prepared by free radical emulsion polymerization. Polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Bifunctional nucleophiles, metal oxides (e.g. zinc oxide), and thioureas are used to crosslink individual polymer strands. Outside of Russia and China, about 300,000 tons of neoprene are produced annually.

History

Neoprene was invented by DuPont scientists on April 17, 1930 after Dr Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont attended a lecture by Fr Julius Arthur Nieuwland a professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame. Nieuwland's research was focused on acetylene chemistry and during the course of his work he produced divinyl acetylene, a jelly that firms into an elastic compound similar to rubber when passed over sulfur dichloride. After DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took over commercial development of Nieuwland's discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland himself. Arnold Collins at DuPont focused on monovinyl acetylene and reacted the substance with hydrogen chloride gas, manufacturing chloroprene.

Chemical structure of the repeating unit of polychloroprene

DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, but its commercial possibilities were limited by the original manufacturing process, which left the product with a foul odor. A new process was developed, which eliminated the odor-causing byproducts and halved production costs, and the company began selling the material to manufacturers of finished end-products. To prevent shoddy manufacturers from harming the product's reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold by DuPont. Since the company itself did not manufacture any DuPrene-containing end products, the trademark was dropped in 1937 and replaced with a generic name, neoprene, in an attempt "to signify that the material is an ingredient, not a finished consumer product". DuPont then worked extensively to generate demand for its product, implementing a marketing strategy that included publishing its own technical journal, which extensively publicized neoprene's uses as well as advertising other companies' neoprene-based products. By 1939, sales of neoprene were generating profits over $300,000 for the company (equivalent to $5,103,589 in 2016).

Applications
General

Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness makes it well suited for demanding applications such as gaskets, hoses and corrosion-resistant coatings. It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in power transformer, installations, and as padding in external metal cases to protect the contents while allowing a snug fit. It resists burning better than exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers, resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such as gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to line landfills. Neoprene's burn point is around 260°C (500°F). Neoprene foam is also used in many applications. Neoprene foam can be produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form. The closed-cell form is waterproof, less compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can be breathable.

Civil Engineering

Neoprene is used as a load bearing base, usually between two prefabricated reinforced concrete elements or steel plates as well to evenly guide tension from one element to another.

Aquatics

Neoprene is commonly used as a material for fly fishing waders, as it provides excellent insulation against cold. Neoprene waders are usually about 5 mm thick, and in the medium price range as compared to cheaper materials such as nylon and rubber. However, neoprene is less expensive than breathable fabrics. A foamed neoprene containing gas cells is used as an insulation material, most notably in wetsuits. Foamed neoprene is also used in other insulation and shock-protection (packing) applications. In its native state, neoprene is a very pliable rubber-like material, with no better insulating properties than rubber or other solid plastics. For diving and exposure protection applications, neoprene is manufactured by foaming the plastic with nitrogen gas, for the insulation properties of the tiny enclosed and separated gas bubbles (nitrogen is used for chemical convenience, not because it is superior to air as an insulator. The foam cells thus created also make the material quite buoyant, and the diver must compensate for this by wearing weights. Thick wet suits made at the extreme end of their cold water protection are usually made of 7 mm thick neoprene. Since foam neoprene contains gas pockets, the material compresses under water pressure, getting thinner at greater depths; a 7 mm neoprene wet suit offers much less exposure protection under 100 feet of water than at the surface. A recent advance in neoprene for wet suits is the "super-flex" variety, which mixes spandex into the neoprene for greater flexibility.

Competitive swimming wetsuits are made of the most expanded foam; they have to be very flexible to allow the swimmer unrestricted movement. The downside is that they are quite fragile.

Home Accecories

Recently, neoprene has become a favorite material for lifestyle and other home accessories including laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote controls, mouse pads, and cycling chamois. In this market, it sometimes competes with LRPu (low-resilience polyurethane), which is a sturdier (more impact-resistant) but less-used material.

Sports

In the equestrian world, it is used in cinches, saddle pads, bareback pads, and many other applications in all disciplines.

It is often used in Airsoft as a protective garment, as it is thin enough to feel the hit, but thick enough to spread out or absorb significant impact energy, thus avoiding breakage of the skin by the pellet.

Training knives and swords are made of Neoprene for safe self-defense instructions, practice, sparring, and martial arts demonstrations.

Used in powerlifting and Olympic lifting. Commonly used are rehband 7mm knee and elbow sleeves. Also they are acceptable support in most powerlifting or strongman federations.

Used in Cycling cold and wet conditions. Notable companies/garments include Rapha Cycling neoprene gloves, and Castelli Cycling neoprene gloves and booties (shoe covers).

Music

Musical instrument maker Yamaha uses neoprene. Neoprene is also used for drum practice pads.

A woman wearing neoprene leggings.

Hydroponic Gardening

Hydroponic and aerated gardening systems make use of small neoprene inserts to hold plants in place while propagating cuttings, or using net cups. Inserts are relatively small, ranging in size from 1.5" to 5". Neoprene is a good choice for supporting plants because of its flexibility and softness, allowing plants to be held securely in place without the chance of causing damage to the stem. Neoprene root covers also help block out light from entering the rooting chamber of hydroponic systems, allowing for better root growth and to help deter the growth of algae

Other

Neoprene is used for Halloween masks and masks used for face protection, for insulating CPU sockets, to make waterproof automotive seat covers, in liquid and sheet-applied elastomeric roof membranes or flashings, and in a neoprene-spandex mixture for manufacture of wheelchair positioning harnesses. Because of its chemical resistance and overall durability, neoprene is sometimes used in the manufacture of dishwashing gloves, especially as an alternative to latex. In fashion, neoprene has been used by designers such as Gareth Pugh, Balenciaga, Rick Owens, Lanvin,and Vera Wang.This trend, promoted by street style bloggers such as Jim Joquico of Fashion Chameleon,  gained traction and trickled down to mainstream fashion around 2014.

Precautions

Some people are allergic to neoprene while others can get dermatitis from thiourea, residues left from its production. The most common accelerator in the vulcanization of polychloroprene is ethylene thiourea (ETU), which has been classified as reprotoxic. The European rubber industry project called SafeRubber focuses on alternatives to the use of ETU.

Neoprene degrades in the presence of some fairly common chemicals, including hydrochloric acid, acetone, xylene, acetic acid, aqua regia,  boric acid, liquid butane, hydrogen peroxide, iodine, kerosine, lacquer, lard, motor oil, nitric acid, palm oil, tallow, turpentine, urine, and most chlorine-based chemicals including household bleach.

References

1. ^ ^a b c Werner Obrecht, Jean-Pierre Lambert, Michael Happ, Christiane Oppenheimer-Stix, John Dunn and Ralf Krüger "Rubber, 4. Emulsion Rubbers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.o23_o01.
2. ^ "Technical information — Neoprene. (PDF). Du Pont Performance Elastomers. October 2003.
3. ^ Furman E. Glenn. "Chloroprene Polymers". Encyclopedia Of Polymer Science and Technology. doi:10.1002/0471440264.pst053.
4. ^ John K. Smith. The Ten-Year Invention: Neoprene and Du Pont Research, 1930–1939. Technology and Culture 26(1):34-55 January 1985
5. ^ "Neoprene : 1930 - Overview. DuPont Heritage. DuPont. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Hounshell, David A.; Smith, John Kenly (1988). Science and Corporate Strategy : Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (Repr. ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 253–257. ISBN 0-521-32767-9.
7. ^ "Neoprene : 1930 - In Depth". DuPont Heritage. DuPont. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
8. ^ "Neoprene - polychloroprene. DuPont Elastomers. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
9. ^ http://msds.dupont.com/msds/pdfs/EN/PEN_09004a35803d9eb8.pdf.
10. ^ "Closed Cell v Open Cell".  Retrieved 2014-01-14.
11. ^ "Neoprene: When fashion hijacked chemistry". Fashion Chameleon.
12. ^ http://www.saferubber.eu
13. ^http://www.fluidproducts.com/PDFs/ChemicalResistance.pdf#page=8&zoom=auto,0,317

- Wikipedia 

SILASTIC

Silastic (a portmanteau of 'silicone' and 'plastic'), is a trademark registered in 1948 by Dow Corning Corporation for flexible, inert silicone elastomer.

Composition

The Silastic trademark refers to silicone elastomers, silicone tubing and some cross-linked polydimethylsiloxane materials manufactured by Dow Corning, the owner of the global trademark.

Applications

Silastic-brand silicone elastomers have a range of applications. In the automotive industry they are used for making gaskets, spark plug boots, hoses and other components that must operate over a broad temperature range and resist oil and coolants. The elastomers are widely used in the architectural, aerospace, electronic, food and beverage, textile, and transportation industries for molding, coating, adhesion and sealing. Due to their inert nature, medical-grade Silastic-brand silicone elastomers are important materials in numerous medical and pharmaceutical devices including catheters, pacemaker leads, tubing, wound dressings silos for abdominal wall defects and nasolacrimal duct obstruction.

References

1. ^ ^a b United States Patent and Trademark Office, U.S. Trademark 71,503,981. Filing date June 15, 1946; registration date April 13, 1948. Owner: Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, Michigan 48686-0994.
2. ^ Abdominal Wall Defects by Sajani Shah MD, at M&M Conference at SUNY Downstate Medical Center. Feb 24, 2006.
3. ^ Engel JM, Hichie-Schmidt C, Khammar A, Ostfeld BM, Vyas A, Ticho BH (2007). "Monocanalicular silastic intubation for the initial correction of congenital nasolacrimal duct obstruction". J Aapos 11 (2): 183–186. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2006.09.009. PMID 17307001.

- Wikipedia 

VITON

Viton is a brand of synthetic rubber and fluoropolymer elastomer commonly used in O-rings, chemical-resistant gloves, and other molded or extruded goods. The name is a registered trademark of DuPont Performance Elastomers L.L.C..

Genuine Viton

Viton fluoroelastomers are categorized under the ASTM D1418 and ISO1629 designation of FKM. This class of elastomers is a family comprising copolymers of hexafluoropropylene (HFP) and vinylidene fluoride (VDF or VF2), terpolymers of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), vinylidene fluoride (VDF) and hexafluoropropylene (HFP) as well as perfluoromethylvinylether (PMVE) containing specialties. The fluorine content of the most common Viton grades varies between 66 and 70%.

Varieties

There are four families of viton polymers:

1. A (Dipolymers of VF2/HFP): General purpose sealing. Automotive, Aerospace fuels & lubricants. Nominal polymer fluorine content: 66%.
2. B (Terpolymers of VF2/HFP/TFE): Chemical Process plant, Power Utility Seals & Gaskets. Nominal polymer fluorine content: 68%.
3. F (Terpolymers of VF2/HFP/TFE): Oxygenated Automotive fuels. Concentrated aqueous inorganic acids, water, steam. Nominal polymer fluorine content: 70%.
4. Specialty types include GLT, GBLT, GFLT & Viton Extreme (Copolymers of TFE/Propylene and Ethylene/TFE/PMVE): Automotive, Oil Exploration, Special Sealing & Ultra Harsh.

Applications

The performance of fluoroelastomers in aggressive chemicals depends on the nature of the base polymer and the compounding ingredients used for molding the final products (e.g. O-rings). This performance can vary significantly when end-users purchase Viton polymer containing rubber goods from different sources. Viton is generally compatible with hydrocarbons, but incompatible with ketones such as acetone and organic acids such as acetic acid. O-rings made of Viton are typically color-coded as black, but new gaskets, seals and O-rings should be green FKM or black FKM, but with a green mark on the outer edge.

Viton O-rings have been used safely for some time in SCUBA diving by divers using gas blends referred to as Nitrox. Viton is used because it has a lower probability of catching fire, even with the increased percentages of oxygen found in Nitrox. It is also less susceptible to decay under increased oxygen conditions.

Viton tubing or Viton lined hoses are commonly recommended in automotive and other transportation fuel applications when high concentrations of biodiesel are required. Studies indicate that types B and F (FKM- GBL-S and FKM-GF-S) are more resistant to acidic biodiesel. (This is because biodiesel fuel is unstable and oxidising.)

Viton o-rings are an alternative to Buna-N seals in BMW's automobile engine variable timing units, known as VANOS. In the VANOS, the Buna-N o-rings deteriorate. The Viton fluorocarbon o-rings have similar functional characteristics to Buna-N, but with much higher temperature and chemical resistance characteristics.

Viton/butyl gloves are highly impermeable to many strong organic solvents that would destroy or permeate commonly used gloves (such as those made with nitriles).

Precautions

At high temperatures or in a fire, fluoroelastomers decompose, and may release hydrogen fluoride. Any residue must be handled using protective equipment.

Competing Materials

Other brands that compete with Viton are:

• Dyneon by 3M, USA.
• Dai-El by Daikin, Japan.
• Tecnoflon by Solvay Specialty Polymers, Italy.

External Links 

• DuPont Performance Elastomers L.L.C.
• Designing with fluoroelastomers

- Wikipedia 

SYNTHETIC RUBBER

A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. These are mainly polymers synthesised from petroleum byproducts. About 15 billion kilograms of rubbers are produced annually, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Global revenues generated with synthetic rubbers are likely to rise to approximately US$56 billion in 2020. Synthetic rubber, like natural rubber, has uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles, hoses, belts, matting and flooring.

Natural vs Synthetic Rubber

Natural rubber, coming from latex of Hevea brasiliensis is mainly poly-cis-isoprene containing traces of impurities like protein, dirt etc. Although it exhibits many excellent properties in terms of mechanical performance, natural rubber is often inferior to certain synthetic rubbers, especially with respect to its thermal stability and its compatibility with petroleum products.

Chemical structure of cis-polyisoprene, the main constituent of natural rubber. Synthetic cis-polyisoprene and natural cis-polyisoprene are derived from different precursors by different chemical pathways

Synthetic rubber is made by the polymerization of a variety of petroleum-based precursors called monomers. The most prevalent synthetic rubbers are styrene-butadiene rubbers (SBR) derived from the copolymerization of styrene and 1,3-butadiene. Other synthetic rubbers are prepared from isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene), chloroprene (2-chloro-1,3-butadiene), and isobutylene (methylpropene) with a small percentage of isoprene for cross-linking. These and other monomers can be mixed in various proportions to be copolymerized to produce products with a range of physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. The monomers can be produced pure and the addition of impurities or additives can be controlled by design to give optimal properties. Polymerization of pure monomers can be better controlled to give a desired proportion of cis and trans double bonds.

History

In 1879, the Frenchman Gustave Bouchardat (1842-1918) created one form of synthetic rubber, producing a polymer of isoprene in a laboratory. The expanded use of motor vehicles, and particularly motor vehicle tires, starting in the 1890s, created increased demand for rubber. In 1909, a team headed by Fritz Hofmann, working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany, also succeeded in polymerizing methyl isoprene (2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene), the first synthetic rubber.

The Russian scientist Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev created the first rubber polymer synthesized from butadiene in 1910. This form of synthetic rubber provided the basis for the first large-scale commercial production, which occurred during World War I as a result of shortages of natural rubber. This early form of synthetic rubber was again replaced with natural rubber after the war ended, but investigations of synthetic rubber continued. Russian American Ivan Ostromislensky did significant early research on synthetic rubber and a couple of monomers in the early 20th century.

Political problems that resulted from great fluctuations in the cost of natural rubber led to the enactment of the Stevenson Act in 1921. This act essentially created a cartel which supported rubber prices by regulating production (see OPEC), but insufficient supply, especially due to wartime shortages, also led to a search for alternative forms of synthetic rubber.

By 1925 the price of natural rubber had increased to the point that many companies were exploring methods of producing synthetic rubber to compete with natural rubber. In the United States, the investigation focused on different materials than in Europe, building on the early laboratory work of Fr Julius Nieuwland, a professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame, who developed the synthesis of neoprene.

Studies published in 1930 written independently by Lebedev, the American Wallace Carothers and the German scientist Hermann Staudinger led in 1931 to one of the first successful synthetic rubbers, known as neoprene, which was developed at DuPont under the direction of E.K. Bolton. Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, and is used in fuel hoses and as an insulating material in machinery. The company Thiokol applied their name to a competing type of rubber based on ethylene dichloride which was commercially available in 1930.

The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 (from Russian "Synthetic Kauchuk", Russian: СК-1) was established (Russia) by Sergei Lebedev in Yaroslavl under Joseph Stalin's First Five-Year Plan on July 7, 1932.

In 1935, German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as Buna rubbers. These were copolymers, meaning the polymers were made up from two monomers in alternating sequence.

Other brands included Koroseal, which Waldo Semon developed in 1935, and Sovprene, which Russian researchers created in 1940.

World War 2

B.F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon developed a new and cheaper version of synthetic rubber known as Ameripol in 1940. Ameripol made synthetic rubber production much more cost effective, helping to meet the country's needs during World War II.

Sheet of synthetic rubber coming off the rolling mill at the plant of Goodrich (1941)

The production of synthetic rubber in the United States expanded greatly during World War II, since the Axis powers controlled nearly all the world's limited supplies of natural rubber by mid-1942. Military trucks needed rubber for tires and rubber was used in almost every other war machine. The U.S. government launched a major (and largely secret) effort to improve synthetic rubber production. A large team of chemists from many institutions were involved, including Calvin Souther Fuller Of Bell Labs. The rubber designated GRS (Government Rubber Styrene), a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, was the basis for U.S. synthetic rubber production during World War II. By 1944, a total of 50 factories were manufacturing it, pouring out a volume of the material twice that of the world's natural rubber production before the beginning of the war. It still represents about half of total world production.

Operation Pointblank bombing targets of Nazi Germany included the Schkopau (50,000 tons/yr) plant and the Hüls synthetic rubber plant near Recklinghausen (30,000, 17%), and the Kölnische Gummifäden Fabrik tire and tube plant at Deutz on the east bank of the Rhine. The Ferrara, Italy, synthetic rubber factory (near a river bridge) was bombed August 23, 1944. Three other synthetic rubber facilities were at Ludwigshafen/Oppau (15,000), Hanover/Limmer (reclamation, 20,000), and Leverkusen (5,000). A synthetic rubber plant at Oświęcim in Nazi-occupied Poland, was under construction on March 5, 1944.

Post War

Solid-fuel rockets during World War II used nitrocellulose for propellants, but it was impractical and dangerous to make such rockets very large. During the war, California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researchers came up with a new solid fuel based on asphalt mixed with an oxidizer (such as potassium or ammonium perchlorate), and aluminium powder. This new solid fuel burned more slowly and evenly than nitrocellulose, and was much less dangerous to store and use, but it tended to slowly flow out of the rocket in storage and the rockets using it had to be stockpiled nose down.

After the war, Caltech researchers began to investigate the use of synthetic rubbers to replace asphalt in their solid fuel rocket motors. By the mid-1950s, large missiles were being built using solid fuels based on synthetic rubber, mixed with ammonium perchlorate and high proportions of aluminium powder. Such solid fuels could be cast into large, uniform blocks that had no cracks or other defects that would cause non-uniform burning. Ultimately, all large solid-fuel military rockets and missiles would use synthetic-rubber-based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.

World War II poster about synthetic rubber tires

Additional refinements to the process of creating synthetic rubber continued after the war. The chemical synthesis of isoprene accelerated the reduced need for natural rubber, and the peacetime quantity of synthetic rubber exceeded the production of natural rubber by the early 1960s.

Nowadays synthetic rubber is used a great deal in printing on textiles. In this case it is called rubber paste. In most cases titanium dioxide is used with copolymerization and volatile matter in producing such synthetic rubber for textile use. Moreover, this kind of preparation can be considered to be the pigment preparation based on titanium dioxide.

Tables of Common Synthetic Rubbers

ISO 1629 Code	Technical Name	Common Names
ACM	Polyacrylate Rubber
AEM	Ethylene-acrylate Rubber
AU	Polyester Urethane
BIIR	Bromo Isobutylene Isoprene	Bromobutyl
BR	Polybutadiene	Buna CB
CIIR	Chloro Isobutylene Isoprene	Chlorobutyl, Butyl
CR	Polychloroprene	Chloroprene, Neoprene
CSM	Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene	Hypalon
ECO	Epichlorohydrin	ECO, Epichlorohydrin, Epichlore, Epichloridrine, Herclor, Hydrin
EP	Ethylene Propylene
EPDM	Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer	EPDM, Nordel
EU	Polyether Urethane
FFKM	Perfluorocarbon Rubber	Kalrez, Chemraz
FKM	Fluoronated Hydrocarbon	Viton, Fluorel
FMQ	Fluoro Silicone	FMQ, Silicone Rubber
FPM	Fluorocarbon Rubber
HNBR	Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene	HNBR
IR	Polyisoprene	(Synthetic) Natural Rubber
IIR	Isobutylene Isoprene Butyl	Butyl
NBR	Acrylonitrile Butadiene	NBR, Nitrile,Perbunan, Buna-N
PU	Polyurethane	PU, Polyurethane
SBR	Styrene Butadiene	SBR, Buna-S, GRS, Buna VSL, Buna SE
SEBS	Styrene Ethylene Butylene Styrene Copolymer	SEBS Rubber
SI	Polysiloxane	Silicone Rubber
VMQ	Vinyl Methyl Silicone	Silicone Rubber
XNBR	Acrylonitrile Butadiene Carboxy Monomer	XNBR, Carboxylated Nitrile
XSBR	Styrene Butadiene Carboxy Monomer
YBPO	Thermoplastic Polyether-ester
YSBR	Styrene Butadiene Block Copolymer
YXSBR	Styrene Butadiene Carboxy Block Copolymer

In additionm, the term "gum rubber" is sometimes used to describe the tree-derived natural rubber (code NR), and to distinguish it from synthetic natural rubber (code IR).
References

1. ^ Threadingham, Desmond; Obrecht, Werner; Wieder, Wolfgang; Wachholz, Gerhard; Engehausen, Rüdiger (2011). Rubber, 3. Synthetic Rubbers, Introduction and Overview. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Weinheim). doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_239.pub5.
2. ^ Market Study Synthetic Rubber, Ceresana, June 2013
3. ^ The Moving Powers of Rubber, Leverkusen, Germany: LANXESS AG: 20
4. ^ Michalovic, Mark (2000). "Destination Germany: A Poor Substitute". The Story of Rubber.
5. ^ Edwards, Douglas C. (2001). "Chap. 5 - Liquid Rubber". In Bhowmick, Anil K.; Stephens, Howard. Handbook of Elastomers, Second Edition (First ed.). Marcel Dekker Inc. p. 135. ISBN 0-8247-0383-9.Retrieved 8 February 2015.
6. ^ Current Biography 1940, "SEMON, WALDO LONSBURY" pp723-24
7. ^ Stormont, John W. (March 1946) [summer of 1945], AAFRH-19: The Combined Bomber Offensive; April through December 1943, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library:Collection of 20th Century Military Records, 1918–1950 Series I: Historical Studies Box 35: AAF Historical Office; Headquarters, Army Air Force, pp. 74–5, 81, SECRET ... Classification Cancelled ... JUN 10 1959
8. ^ Gurney, Gene (Major, USAF) (1962), The War in the Air: a pictorial history of World War II Air Forces in combat, New York: Bonanza Books, p. 215
9. ^ Williamson, Charles C.; Hughes, R. D.; Cabell, C. P.;Nazarro, J. J.; Bender, F. P.; & Crigglesworth, W. J. (5 March 1944), Plan for Completion of Combined Bomber Offensive (Appendices C & F), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library: SMITH, WALTER BEDELL: Collection of World War II Documents, 1941–1945; Box No.: 48: HQ, U.S.S.T.A.F, DECLASSIFIED ... 4/24/74 Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help).

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