Overview Black currant seed oil (BCSO), also known as Ribes Nigrum, is an herb
that is often overlooked. It is an excellent source of GLA
(gamma-linoleic acid), which the University of Maryland Medical Center
lists as an essential fatty acid used to treat a variety of ailments,
from diabetes and ulcers to allergies and cancer. BCSO is available as a
dietary supplement in the form of capsules. There is no standard
reference for how much black currant seed oil you should take, so follow
the directions on the supplement carefully.
Black currant
Photo Credit annalovisa/iStock/Getty ImagesAnti-Inflammatory Benefits
As mentioned above, one of the health-promoting ingredients in black currant seed oil is gamma-linolenic acid (GLA.) This GLA is a powerful anti-inflammatory, which is used to treat the swelling and pain associated with arthritis, as well as gastritis, which is inflammation of the stomach. A report from the American Association of Anti-aging Medicine states that black currant seed oil works against inflammation by stimulating the production of prostaglandin-1, an anti-inflammatory hormone.
Anti-Aging Benefits As we age, there is an increase of the production of prostaglandin E2 in the body. While this compound is necessary for functions such as muscle contraction, if there is too much of it, it can have negative effects on the immune system, and increase the risk of age-related diseases. The National Institutes of Health reports a study that shows that supplementation with black currant seed oil helps to suppress the production of prostaglandin E2, thereby boosting the immune system function of the aging. The same report from the American Association of Anti-aging Medicine mentioned above states that supplementing with 4.5 gm per day supports the immune system.
Anti-Viral Benefits One of the distinct benefits of black currant seed oil is its anti-viral properties. A study published in the February 2003 issue of "Phytotherapy Research" shows that BCSO is particularly protective against the influenza virus. Researchers in Japan state that not only was the growth of influenza A and B completely suppressed when exposed to BCSO extract, the extract also prevented the virus from being released from the infected cells and spreading further.
Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of life- particularly the rearing of livestock and production of crops to produce food for humans. It is thus generally synonymous with farmland or cropland.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and others following its definitions, however, also use agricultural land or agricultural area as a term of art, where it means the collection of:
"arable land" :(aka cropland): here redefined to refer to land producing crops requiring annual replanting or fallowland or pasture used for such crops within any five-year period
"permanent cropland": land producing crops which do not require annual replanting
permanent pastures: natural or artificial grasslands and shrublands able to be used for grazing livestock
This sense of "agricultural land" thus includes a great deal of land not actively or even presently devoted to agricultural use. The land actually under annually-replanted crops in any given year is instead said to constitute "sown land" or "cropped land". "Permanent cropland" includes forested plantations used to harvest coffee, rubber or fruit but not tree farms or proper forests used for wood or timber. Land able to be used for farming (traditionally called arable land but here described as "arable land" and "permanent cropland" together) is called "cultivable land". Farmland, meanwhile, is used variously in reference to all agricultural land, to all cultivable land, or just to the newly restricted sense of "arable land". Depending upon its use of artificial irrigation, the FAO's "agricultural land" may be divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land.
In the context of zoning, agricultural land or agriculturally-zoned land refers to plots that are permitted to be used for agricultural activities, without regard to its present use or even suitability. In some areas, agricultural land is protected so that it can be farmed without any threat of development. The Agricultural Land Reserve in British Columbia, for instance, requires approval from its Agricultural Land Commission before its lands can be removed or subdivided.
Area
Under the FAO's definitions above, agricultural land covers 38.4% of the world's land area as of 2011. Permanent pastures are 68.4% of all agricultural land (26.3% of global land area), arable land (row crops) is 28.4% of all agricultural land (10.9% of global land area), and permanent crops (e.g. vineyards and orchards) are 3.1% (1.2% of global land area).
Total of land used to produce food: 49,116,227 square kilometers or 18,963,881 square miles
Arable land: 13,963,743 square kilometers or 5,391,431 square miles
Permanent crops: 1,537,338 square kilometers or 593,570 square miles
Permanent pastures: 33,585,676 square kilometers or 12,967,502 square miles
Globally, the total amount of agricultural land according to FAO has been in decline since 1998, although it should be noted that this does not account for gross conversion (e.g. land is being extensively cleared for agriculture in some areas, while converted from agriculture to other uses such as urban elsewhere) and more detailed analyses have sometimes found the FAO data to be inaccurate. For example, Lark et al. 2015 found that in the United States cropland increased by 2.98 million acres from 2008-2012 (comprising 7.34 million acres (29,700 km2) converted to agriculture, and 4.36 million acres (17,600 km2) converted from agriculture); the FAO shows that during this period U.S. agricultural land declined by 16.56 million acres (67,000 km2).
Agricultural Land Area ('000 km2)
2008
2009
2010
2011
USA
4,044
4,035
4,109
4,113
Germany
169
169
167
167
Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT
Russia
The cost of Russian farmland is as little as €1,500-2,000/ha (£1,260-1,680/ha). Farmland can be available in France for roughly €10,000/ha, but this is a bargain; for quality soil, realistic prices vary between €50,000-100,000/ha . Farmland has been seen to be available on the Spanish market for as little as €10,000/ha, but this is non-irrigated land.
The average Russian farm measures 150ha. The most prevalent crops in Russia are wheat, barley, corn, rice, sugar beet, soy beans, sunflower, potatoes and vegetables. The Krasnodar region in Russia has 86,000ha of arable land. Russian farmers harvested roughly 85-90 million tonnes of wheat annually in the years around 2010. Russia exported most to Egypt, Turkey and Iran in 2012; China was a significant export market as well. The average yield from the Krasnodar region was between 4 and 5 tonnes per ha, while the Russian average was only 2t/ha. The Basic Element Group, which is a conglomerate owned by Oleg Deripaska, is one of Russia's leading agricultural producers, and owns or manages 109,000ha of Russian farmland, out of 90m actual and 115m total (0.12% actual).
Ukraine
In 2013, Ukraine was ranked third in corn production and sixth in wheat production. It was the main supplier of corn, wheat, and rape to Europe, although it is unclear whether the internal supply from countries like France were accounted in this calculation. Ukrainian farmers achieve 60% of the output per unit area of their North American competitors. UkrLandFarming PLC produces from 1.6m acres corn wheat barley sugar beet and sunflowers. Until 2014, the chief Ukrainian export terminal was the Crimean port of Sebastopol.
References
^Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "agricultural, adj." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2012.
^Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "agriculture, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2012.
^See also, e.g., Provincial Agricultural Land Commission. "What is Agricultural Land" The Province of British Columbia. Accessed 1 Aug 2014.
^OECD. Glossary of Statistical Terms: "Agricultural land".
^Provincial Agricultural Land Commission. Official website. Accessed 1 Aug 2014.
^ abFAOSTAT data on land use, retrieved December 4, 2015
^WDI –World Development Indicators online database, retrieved on July 18, 2008 (may require subscription for access; print edition, from the World Bank).
^"Global Agriculture Trends: Are We Actually Using Less Land?
^http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044003/meta;jsessionid=8826EC9C94BA1FDDB68BAF8F68A98E43.c1.iopscience.cld.iop.org , " Cropland expansion outpaces agricultural and biofuel policies in the United States"
^helgilibrary.com: "Agricultural Land Area" 2014-02-12.
^ abcdefghFarmer's Weekly: "The future of farming in Russia" 9 Dec 2013.
^ abcde"Ukraine crisis sends grain prices soaring" 21 Mar 2014
A vegan diet excludes all foods and products that come from animals. According to The Vegetarian Resource Group, vegans do not eat meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy or honey. Vegans also avoid any personal hygiene products, such as soap, that are derived from animal sources. Additionally, they do not wear silk, wool, leather or fur. As of January 2011, almost 2 million Americans are vegan. A healthy vegan diet must include a variety of grains, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. You may have concerns about meeting all of your nutritional requirements following a vegan diet -- with good reason. Many people lose weight when they transition to a vegan lifestyle, eating fewer calories and eliminating vital nutrients. Fortunately, a single date has more than 60 calories -- more than an entire small apple. Harvard University estimates that 75 percent of vegans do not get enough calcium in their diets and "have a relatively high rate of bone fractures." Tahini, made from sesame seeds, contains 65 mg of calcium per tbsp. and adds much needed protein and healthy fat to your diet.
Dates are relatively high in calories for a fruit; a single medjool date has 65 calories.Photo Credit Eising/Photodisc/Getty Images
Step 1
Add 500 calories to your diet every day to gain about 1 lb. per week. It takes a 3,500-calorie surplus to add 1 lb. to your body weight. You may want to keep a food journal and note how many calories you consume -- and to ensure that you are eating enough different types of food to meet all your nutritional needs.
Step 2
Eat five Medjool dates each day, for an extra 300 calories. Medjool dates are very sweet and make an excellent dessert without adding extra sugar. Although you are increasing your calorie intake to gain weight, you want to eat nutrient-dense foods -- not empty calories.
Make date macaroons by combining a banana, 1.5 cups of coconut flakes and 8 dates in a food processor, blending until smooth. Roll the mixture into 1-inch balls, place on a cookie sheet and bake in a 325 degree Fahrenheit oven for 15 minutes. This makes approximately 15 cookies, and each cookie has 100 calories.
Step 3
Add 2 or 3 tbsp. of tahini into your diet daily. Tahini is a savory spread made from ground sesame seeds and olive oil. Every tablespoon has almost 90 calories, 3 g of protein, 8 g of unsaturated fat and almost no sugar. Both protein and healthy fats will help you gain weight.
Make your own tahini by toasting 5 cups of sesame seeds in a 350 degree Fahrenheit oven for eight minutes. Be careful not to let them brown or burn. Allow the sesame seeds to cool, and blend them with 1.5 cups of olive oil. You should end up with 4 cups of a thick, but pourable, liquid.
Use tahini as a dip for roasted eggplant or mix tahini with lemon juice and use it as a salad dressing.
Warnings
Consult your doctor before making any radical changes to your diet, to avoid any medical complications.
Tips
Vegans may need a vitamin supplement or omega-3 supplement, because of dietary restrictions. According to Harvard University, vegans are at risk for vitamin D and vitamin K deficiencies.
Gamma linoleic acid, also known as GLA, is an omega-6 fatty acid with a number of potential uses, which include treating rheumatoid arthritis. Omega-6 fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat important for brain function. Polyunsaturated fats, in general, help maintain the reproductive system and promote healthy skin and hair as well as regulate the metabolic system. GLA is found in plant seed oils, including evening primrose, black currant and borage, as well as in fungal oils and spirulina.
GLA may be useful in treating attention deficit hyperactive disorder.Photo Credit Jeff Randall/Photodisc/Getty Images
Reduce Inflammation
Inflammation is a marker of many degenerative and chronic diseases including cancer, diabetes, heart disease and arthritis. Gamma linoleic acid may be an important factor in reducing inflammatory responses, according to a December 2006 article published in "Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology." GLA can help promote the expression of certain genes that play an important role in immune function and cancer cell death. These anti-inflammatory effects are likely responsible for GLA's potential in treating rheumatoid arthritis symptoms. Taking GLA supplements for one to three months may help reduce pain, swelling and morning stiffness associated with rheumatoid arthritis, notes the University of Maryland Medical Center website.
Improve Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder
The human brain is nearly 60 percent fat. This means that GLA, other omega-6 fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acids are all essential for normal brain function and behavior. The UMMC website notes that there is evidence that taking GLA may help improve attention deficit hyperactive disorder, a very common brain-related disorder. A meta-analysis published in the February 2014 issue of "Prostaglandins, Leukorienes and Essential Fatty Acids" examined 18 studies and found that polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially GLA and eicosapentaenoic acid, could provide a modest benefit in treating ADHD symptoms.
Maintain Weight Loss
GLA may play a role in maintaining a healthy body weight. One study published in the June 2007 issue of "The Journal of Nutrition" indicates that GLA can reduce weight gain following major weight loss. In this study, formerly obese participants were administered 890 milligrams of GLA per day, as 5 grams of borage oil, or 5 grams of olive oil, for a one-year period. The study found that those who were given the GLA regained less weight than participants who did not take the GLA, suggesting that GLA may be useful in preventing weight gain in individuals prone to obesity.
Eczema
GLA was once commonly used as a treatment for eczema, a skin condition, notes NYU Langone Medical Center website. However, the evidence regarding this use is mixed. One study published in the April 2013 issue of "The Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews" concluded that ingesting either borage oil or evening primrose oil did not have any effect on eczema. While the evidence regarding GLA and eczema is mixed, it may be worth talking to your doctor about this option.
Sources of GLA
GLA is found only in very small amounts in a typical diet. However, your body can produce GLA from linoleic acid, another fat that is found in many foods. Under certain circumstances, such as if an individual is elderly or has eczema, diabetes, a viral infection, high cholesterol levels, excessive saturated fat intake and certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies, the body may not be able to produce adequate amounts of GLA. In these situations, taking GLA supplements may make up for a deficiency. Keep in mind that you should consult with your doctor before taking dietary supplements.
Iron is an essential mineral that transports oxygen to every cell in your body. Iron surpluses are housed in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and muscles. People who are iron-deficient may develop anemia, which can cause fatigue and weakness. Iron supplements are sometimes suggested to improve iron levels and treat anemia. The best time of day to take an iron supplement will depend on when you eat your first meal.
Children and pregnant women are most likely to be iron deficient.Photo Credit Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images
Considerations
Iron should be taken on an empty stomach to ensure full absorption. It's generally recommended that adults take an iron supplement with 8 oz. water or fruit juice one to two hours after meals. Children should drink 4 oz. liquids with iron. You may avoid stomach upset by taking iron right after eating. Over-the-counter iron supplements are available in chewable, capsule, tablet and liquid forms.
Function
Anemia can be caused by a variety of conditions, such as bleeding ulcers or heavy blood loss during menstruation. Iron deficiency due to anemia typically requires 50 to 100 mg elemental iron three times per day, notes the National Institutes of Health. The suggested dosage for anemic children is 5 mg divided into three daily doses. In severe cases of anemia, iron should be administered intravenously in a health-care facility. It normally takes two to three months of treatment to reverse anemia and six months for the body to build up an iron reserve. People who are iron deficient because of uncontrolled bleeding require ongoing iron therapy. Talk to your health-care provider about taking iron supplements for your specific condition.
General Dosing Recommendations
The recommended daily intake of iron for non-anemic individuals is 8 mg for men of all ages and women over age 50. Women of childbearing age should consume 18 mg iron each day, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. Pregnant women should get 27 mg iron daily.
Precautions
Taking iron with certain foods may deplete its value. Avoid eating eggs, cheese, yogurt, whole grains and spinach one to two hours after taking iron. It's also best not to drink milk, coffee or tea. Iron supplements should be taken at least one to two hours apart from calcium supplements and antacids to reap the maximum benefits from each.
Side Effects
Common side effects associated with iron supplements include upset stomach, nausea, constipation, diarrhea and heartburn. The FDA says taking up to 45 mg iron daily is generally considered safe. Iron toxicity can occur when taken in amounts that far exceed the recommended dosage. Severe iron toxicity can cause bloody diarrhea, vomiting and, in rare cases, can be fatal.
A vegan diet consists of vegetable, nut and grain products, excluding all items of animal origin, such as eggs, dairy products, red meat, poultry and fish. Some vegans also choose not to consume honey. Although parents may be concerned when a child decides to follow a vegan diet, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetcs states that a well-balanced vegan diet can provide all the essential nutrition needed at all stages of life, even teen years.
Vegan diets that include a wide variety of fruits, vegetables and grains provide adequate amounts of vitamins for teenagers.Photo Credit Purestock/Purestock/Getty Images
Where to Get Calcium
Calcium is an especially important mineral for teenagers, as it aids in building bone during periods of growth. Dairy products serve as the main source of calcium in the diet of most omnivores and vegetarians. For vegans, excellent sources of calcium are plentiful and should be included in the diet daily. Fortified rice, soy and almond "milks" provide calcium comparable to their dairy counterpart. You can drink these alternative milks straight from the glass, or use them for baking and making smoothies and shakes. Tofu and orange juice are also available in calcium-fortified varieties. Dark, leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli, swiss chard and collard greens, are other calcium-rich vegan food choices.
Where to Get Protein
Teenagers who live in modern, industrialized societies and have access to a wide variety of foods should have no problem getting sufficient amounts of protein without eating meat or dairy products. In fact, the Vegetarian Resource Group notes that the only foods not containing protein are alcohols, fats and fruits. Vegan food choices that contain high amounts of protein include tofu, beans, nuts and legumes.
Where to Get B-12
Vitamin B-12 is the only nutrient that is not naturally available in non-animal-derived foods. However, many vegan food products, as well as soy and rice milk, are fortified with B-12, and very little of the nutrient is required for the human body to function. Teens need 2.4 micrograms of B-12 per day, pregnant teens need 2.5 and breastfeeding teens need 2.8, according to the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Red Star Nutritional Yeast -- a powder that can be used in cooking and as a topping for just about anything -- contains very high levels of B-12, with 3.2 micrograms or 133 percent of the recommended daily intake in 1.5 tablespoons. A daily vitamin and mineral supplement can also help ensure adequate intake of all the major nutrients.
Where to Get Iron
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the United States today, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A vegan diet that includes sufficient variety and quantity of fruits, vegetables and grain products should provide adequate iron. However, many individuals have difficulty assimilating the iron taken in through diet. In order to improve the body's ability to absorb the iron from foods, nutritionists recommend cooking food in cast-iron skillets, adding beans and legumes to the diet and taking iron-rich foods with foods high in Vitamin C.
Arable land (from Latin arabilis, "able to be plowed" is, according to one definition, land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. In Britain, it was traditionally contrasted with pasturable lands such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing but not farmland.
Modern mechanized agriculture permits large fields like this one in Dorset, England.
A quite different kind of definition is used by various agencies concerned with agriculture. In providing statistics on arable land, the FAO and the World Bank use the definition provided in the glossary accompanying FAOSTAT: “Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops (multiple-cropped areas are counted only once), temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for ‘Arable land’ are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.” A briefer definition appearing in the Eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual, rather than potential use: “land worked (ploughed or tilled) regularly, generally under a system of crop rotation.”
Fields in the region of Záhorie in Western Slovakia.
Arable Land Area
In 2008, the world's arable land amounted to 1,386 M ha, out of a total 4,883 M ha land used for agriculture. This figure and the data below refer to arable land as defined by the FAO (above). Arable land in the accompanying map refers to a definition used by the US CIA, which resembles that of the FAO.
Agricultural land that is not arable according to the FAO definition above includes land that produces crops from woody vegetation, e.g. orchardland, vineyards, coffee plantations, rubber plantations, and land producing nut trees; in addition to land used as pasture and grazed range, and those natural grasslands and sedge meadows that are used for hay production in some regions. Other non-arable land includes land unsuitable for any agricultural use.
Water Buffalo ploughing rice fields near Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
Land that is not arable, in the sense of lacking capability or suitability for cultivation for crop production, has one or more limitations e.g. lack of sufficient fresh water for irrigation, stoniness, steepness, adverse climate, excessive wetness with impracticality of drainage, excessive salts, among others. Although such limitations may preclude cultivation, and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use, large areas unsuitable for cultivation are agriculturally productive. For example, US NRCS statistics indicate that about 59 percent of US non-federal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation, yet such land has value for grazing of livestock. In British Columbia, Canada, 41 percent of the provincial Agricultural Land Reserve area is unsuitable for production of cultivated crops, but is suitable for uncultivated production of forage usable by grazing livestock. Similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere.
Land incapable of being cultivated for production of crops can sometimes be converted to arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can reduce starvation. This outcome also makes a country more self-sufficient and politically independent, because food importation is reduced. Making non-arable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aqueducts, desalination plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, hydroponics, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, pesticides, reverse osmosis water processors, PET film insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas. This process is often extremely expensive. An alternative is the Seawater Greenhouse which desalinates water through evaporation and condensation using solar energy as the only energy input. This technology is optimized to grow crops on desert land close to the sea.
Some examples of infertile non-arable land being turned into fertile arable land are:
Aran Islands: These islands off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the Isle of Arran in Scotland's Firth of Clyde), were unsuitable for arable farming because they were too rocky. The people covered the islands with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, crops are grown there.
Israel: The construction of desalination plants along Israel's coast allowed agriculture in some areas that were formerly desert. The desalination plants, which remove the salt from ocean water, have created a new source of water for farming, drinking, and washing.
Slash and burn agriculture uses nutrients in wood ash, but these expire within a few years.
Terra preta, fertile tropical soils created by adding charcoal.
Some examples of fertile arable land being turned into infertile land are:
Droughts like the 'dust bowl' of the Great Depression in the U.S. turned farmland into desert.
Rainforest deforestation: The fertile tropical forests are converted into infertile desert land. For example, Madagascar's central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country), as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives.
Each year, arable land is lost due to desertification and human-induced erosion. Improper irrigation of farm land can wick the sodium, calcium and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.
References
^Oxford English Dictionary,3rd ed. "arable, adj. and n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2013.
^The World Bank. Agricultural land (% of land area) http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS.
^FAOSTAT. [Statistical database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] Glossary. http://faostat3.fao.org/mes/glossary/E.
^"FAO Statistical Yearbook - Land use (Excel). FAOSTAT. p. A4. Retrieved 2 November2013.
^Central Intelligence Agency. The world factbook. Field listing. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2097.html.
^"Arable Land Area". The Helgi Library. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
^"FAOSTAT Land Use module". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
^"The CIA World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved June 2006. Percentage shares of total land area [by country] used for arable land - land cultivated for crops like wheat, maize, and rice that are replanted after each harvest
^United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1961. Land capability classification. Agriculture Handbook 210. 21 pp.
^NRCS. 2013. Summary report 2010 national resources inventory. United States Natural Resources Conservation Service. 163 pp.
^Agricultural Land Commission. Agriculture Capability and the ALR Fact Sheet. http://www.alc.gov.bc.ca/alc/DownloadAsset?assetId=72876D8604EC45279B8D3C1B14428CF8&filename=agriculture_capability__the_alr_fact_sheet_2013.pdf.
