Invasion of citrus psyllids in rehabilitated orchards and its probability decreased with distance of the new orchard from adjacent long-established ones

　　Citrus greening disease (referred to as CG hereinafter), or Huanglongbing, is currently one of the most serious problems facing citrus farmers worldwide, since it results in destructive damage to citrus production only a few years after its invasion. There is no decisive control method for this disease. The most practical management considered at this moment is the combination of removal of all rutaceous trees in and around orchards, planting new disease‑free seedlings, and application of systemic insecticides thereafter. The success of this method appears to be primarily and strongly dependent on the re‑invasion of viruliferous psyllids of the orchard after its sanitation. We can expect a negative correlation between the probability of re‑invasion and the distance of the new orchard from the nearest old orchard. Knowing this correlation a priori, we can predict the risk of disease occurrence through the invasion of vectors in new orchards. If we use insecticides only when or where the risk is predicted to be high, it will help to reduce the use of pesticides or enable their more effective and rational use.

　　We examined the above hypothesis using four orchards in the Mekong Delta Region of southern Vietnam, varying their distances from the nearest old orchard from 0 to 50 m. We planted disease‑free seedlings of king mandarin in May to June 2005. We will propose more efficient and economic control of psyllids for new orchards based on our results.

　　The probability of invasion of new orchards by psyllids was dependent on the distance of the new orchard from the nearest old one. Orchards which were at a distance of 20 m were heavily invaded by psyllids two weeks after planting, with mean densities (adults/tree) generally from 0.1 to 0.9 (Fig. 1). 

　　Many first-generation nymphs appeared within one month of planting these orchards. The maximum density of nymphs reached 0.4 colony/tree in one orchard (Fig. 2). 

　　On the other hand, an orchard 50 m distant from the nearest old orchard was rarely invaded by psyllids, and the time of the first invasion was delayed for one and half months (Figs. 1, 2). No nymphs were found throughout the study period (6 months).
　　Psyllids use new shoots as feeding and egg‑laying sites. However, the numbers of new shoots were not apparently different between the studied orchards (Fig. 3), indicating that the re‑invasion of psyllids depended on the distance of the new orchard from the nearest orchard.

　　In orchards within 20 m of the nearest old orchards, the population density of psyllids reached more than 0.2 adult/tree in one month and maintained this high density for three to four months. Accordingly, the densities of nymph colonies were likely to be high during these months. Thus, if some trees are infected with the CG pathogen vectored by invading adult psyllids, the pathogen will be rapidly transmitted by adults that had developed from nymphs on the CG-infected trees at high frequency, with the result that CG will be quickly spread throughout the orchard. Hence, to prevent a second dissemination of the pathogen, control of psyllids in these orchards should be undertaken immediately after they are planted.

　　Both the latency to the occurrence of the first invasion and the frequency of psyllid invasion may be determined not only by the distance but also the season of planting, cultivation system, geographical situation of the orchard, vegetation in or around the orchard, and so on. These factors remain to be examined.

(K. Ichinose, D. H. Tuan, N. M. Chau, L. Q. Dien, and D. V. Bang)

Fig. 1. Change in the number of psyllid adults in citrus orchards at different distances from the nearest old orchard after planting seedlings Fig. 2. Change in number of psyllid nymph colonies in citrus orchards at different distances from the nearest old orchard after planting seedlings Fig. 3. Change in number of new shoots in citrus orchards at different distances from the nearest old orchard after planting of seedlings.

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Economic efficiency of the combination of planting disease‑free seedlings with application of systemic insecticides for the Citrus Greening problem in the Mekong Delta Region

　　Citrus Greening disease (referred to as CG hereinafter), or Huanglongbing, is currently one of the most serious problems facing citrus farmers worldwide, since it results in destructive damage to citrus production only a few years after its invasion. There is no decisive control method for this disease. The most practical management considered at this moment is the combination of removal of all rutaceous trees in and around orchards, planting of new disease‑free seedlings, and application of systemic insecticides thereafter. The effectiveness of this management has not been proved, and it will take a long time to study its management in the field. However, circumstantial evidence of its effectiveness has been obtained by a questionnaire on the relationship between farmers’ management of citrus orchards and crop yields in each orchard. Our hypothesis was that crop yields in orchards where disease‑free seedlings have been planted and systemic insecticides applied are higher than in other orchards where neither of these managements was undertaken.

　　We randomly selected 116 farmers in the Mekong Delta Region of Vietnam and asked them if they used disease-free seedlings with or without systemic insecticide. We also asked them how much they invested financially in their orchards and the income from the crop yield. To examine the above hypothesis, we compared the results between management with disease‑free seedlings and systemic insecticide with other types of management and evaluated the effectiveness of our combination against the citrus greening problem.

　　We identified four management patterns of citrus cultivation according to combination of seedlings and systemic insecticides: the use of both disease‑free seedlings certified by a public organization and systemic insecticide (Free/Chem), disease‑free and no systemic insecticides (Free/No), seedlings without any certification (uncertified seedlings) but the use of systemic insecticides (Uncert/Chem), and uncertified and no systemic (Uncert/No chem). In the studied area, our estimates suggest that CG reduced crop yield by 10.3 % in the Free/Chem orchards, 16.1 % in the Free/No chem orchards, 14.5 % in the Uncert/Chem orchards, and 28.5 % in the Uncert/No chem orchards, compared to the crop yield in the absence of CG.

　　We define the economic durability of an orchard as the period in which farmers can expect an income of more than 300,000 dong/1000 m2 from the orchard after planting seedlings. The economic durability of orchards was five to six years without the use of systemic insecticide and seven to eight years with it, while fruit production started the third year after planting in both cases (Fig. 1). Mean annual yield during the economic durability period was 1.758 ± 0.342 (ton/1000 m2) in the Free/Chem orchards, 0.730 ± 0.142 in the Free/No chem orchard, 1.150 ± 0.255 in the Uncert/Chem orchard, 0.588 ± 0.128 in the Uncert/No chem orchard.

　　Mean annual investment (million dong/1000 m2) by each management type is shown in the Table 1. Naturally, investments in the purchase of seedlings and pesticides were the highest in the Free/Chem orchard. Investment in fertilizer was also fairly high in the management of systemic insecticide, while that in labor was similar among the four managements.

　　Our study revealed that although management that combines the planting of disease‑free seedlings with use of systemic insecticides required the highest monetary investment, it promises both the highest yield and income. However, our study is inevitably impeded by statistical problems. In this present study, we were not able to analyze either the effects of differences in geographic/weather conditions between fields/years or those due to variation in management styles undertaken by farmers. We need to perform field experiments in which these conditions are included. This is a future issue.

(D. H. Tien, T. Kano, K. Ichinose, and R. Yamada)

Fig. 1. Mean annual yield of crop and income by the four separate types of citrus management, categorized according to combination of disease‑free seedling and systemic insecticide (cf. text for the definition of the managements). Table 1. Mean annual investment (± SD) by the four separate management types of citrus, according to combination of disease‑free seedling and systemic insecticide.

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The advantages and disadvantages of subsurface drip irrigation

　　Drip irrigation has been increasingly used since the 1960s, due to its advantages such as increased productivity and greater water saving. One advantage of subsurface (SDI) and surface drip irrigation (DI) is that it also is a cost-effective method for application of nutrients, pesticides, etc., at frequent intervals throughout the crop-growing season. Although the yield response for many crops indicated that the crop yield under SDI was greater than or equal to that under other irrigation methods, including DI, and required less water in many cases, no clear differences were observed between SDI and DI, since differences in the number of experimental years and sites often yielded differing results. Further, plants under SDI need to distribute their roots into a deep water-supplied area during the early stages of growth, and there are few reports evaluating the effects of this stage. In this study, we measured the evapotranspiration rates, LAI, root activities and shoot dry weights of cabbage grown under DI and SDI (15 cm depth) to clarify the reason for uncertainness in the difference between SDI and DI in each growing stage.  

　　Cabbage evapotranspiration rates were greater under DI and SDI in the early and later stages of growth, respectively (Fig. 1). LAI of cabbage was also greater under DI and SDI in the early and later stages of growth, respectively.

　　The roots penetrated to slightly below 15 cm depth in the early stage of growth 17 days after transplanting (DAT). This means that under SDI, only parts of the roots are likely to reach the water-supplied area. This was one reason why the evapotranspiration rate of cabbage under SDI was lower than that under DI in the early stages of growth before 20 DAT. The root TTC reduction capacity (root activity) of cabbage under SDI increased when its evapotranspiration rate increased in the later stage of growth (Figs. 1 and 2). These results demonstrate that the root activity and evapotranspiration rate of the plant under SDI increased in the later stages of growth, although the evapotranspiration rate was lower and the growth was slower in the early stages of growth than for plants under DI. A nutrient-rich and water-rich environment would be preferable for plants under DI and SDI in the early and later stages of growth, respectively. Thus, plant growth under DI and SDI appears to change according to whether other environmental factors such as temperature and solar radiation are advantageous in the early or later stages of growth. These factors are what created the uncertainness in the difference in shoot dry weight and yield between DI and SDI.

(K. Nakamura and K. Ozawa)

Fig. 1. Evapotranspiration rate of cabbage grown under DI and SDI at each stage of growth. DAT: days after transplanting  Fig. 2. TTC reduction capacity (root activity) of cabbage grown under DI and SDI at 56 DAT (day after transplanting).

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Runoff of nutrients cause decreasing crop yield in fields with lower infiltration rates in Southern Mali

　　In Southern Mali, over a distance of approximately 300 km, or for every 2˚ difference in latitude, annual precipitation has decreased within the recent few decades by 600 mm, from 1,400 mm to 800 mm. Local farmers tend to believe that the reduction in precipitation is the only cause of recently decreasing and unstable crop production. However, we were able to demonstrate that runoff of fertilizer elements due to precipitation decreased crop yield in fields with low infiltration rates in the region. The research was conducted with budgetary support from the Japanese Ministry of Education over a period of three years from 2000.

　　The region is located on one of the old geological plates, where soils have become divided into two distinct types during its long history. The first type is gravelly soil, with a high infiltration rate, located mainly in highland areas where erosion occurs. The other type is clayey soil, with a low infiltration rate, located mainly in lowland areas, where deposition occurs. In the first type of soil, rainwater infiltrates rapidly into the subsoil, while in the second type, there is considerable rainwater runoff from the soil surface.

　　We hypothesized that either type of water movement could cause loss of nutritive elements and thereby result in reduced yield. We tested this hypothesis first by examining the infiltration rate. Analysis showed that, from the beginning of the rainy season, at least 614 mm of precipitation and 90 days were needed before the water capacity of the soil at a depth of 60 cm was completely filled (Fig. 1).
　　According to our results, over 90% of the water from precipitation was calculated to be lost due to soil surface runoff and evaporation. Growth of maize, millet, sorghum and cotton was visually estimated from standing plants, and was analyzed in terms of its relationship with the infiltration rates in twenty-one fields in Diou. For measurement of the infiltration rate, a cylinder 20 cm2 in cross section and 10 cm in height was inserted into the soil to a depth of 2.5 cm, after which water was poured into the cylinder to a height of 5 cm. Crop growth was poor in fields where infiltration rates were either much lower than the average range, at under 0.04 mm/sec or much higher at over 1.00 mm/sec (Fig. 2).

　　Root distribution maps of maize were drawn from three fields with low, medium, and high infiltration rates, respectively. Crops in fields with soils with low infiltration rates showed signs of mild water stress early in the cropping period. Crops in fields with soils showing high infiltration rates gave signs of restricted root development later in the cropping period. These results show that runoff of water and nutritive elements from the soil surface, as well as leaching into the subsoil, collectively result in poor growth.

　　To verify the above hypothesis experimentally, effects on cotton yield of quick-acting and slow-acting fertilizers were compared. Cotton yield in plots receiving slow-acting fertilizer were higher in fields with soils showing lower infiltration rates (Table 1). This shows that the lack of nutritive elements due to rainwater runoff on the soil surface decreased water use efficiency in fields with lower infiltration rates, even in this region where a general water shortage already limits crop production.

　　Practices to decrease nutritive element runoff on soil surfaces, including split application of fertilizer, construction of levees surrounding fields, and drainage canals could be useful in fields with lower infiltration rates. The infiltration rates of 12% of fields in the region were under 0.04 mm/sec. 

 (K. Ozawa*, M. Doumbia, A. Yorote and J. S. Caldwell)

Fig. 1. Changes in soil water content at different depths and in relation to daily precipitation in Niessemana, Mali.

Fig. 2. Relation between infiltration rate in soil surface and estimated yield grade.

Table 1. Effects of  additional application of urea and coated urea on cotton ball yield in fields with different infiltration rates.

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Midday drop in leaf water content is an effective trait for evaluating germplasm for heat and drought tolerance in snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).

　　In the subtropical islands of Okinawa, snap bean production in summer is very difficult due to high temperatures, strong solar radiation, and drought, etc. The crop faces a water deficit due to excessive transpiration caused by high temperature s. However, the influences of high temperature and drought on pod/seed production, shoot extension, water status and photosynthesis as related to cultivar variations have hitherto been unclear. To develop simple physiological traits for heat and drought tolerance is also desired for breeders to accelerate the screening of stress-tolerant germplasm. This study was, therefore, conducted to identify the plant traits/ processes related to heat and/or drought stresses and to elucidate the mechanisms of stress tolerance in snap bean.

　　A discriminant analysis revealed that the five cultivars (Haibushi, Ishigaki-2 Kurodane-Kinugasa, Kentucky Wonder and 92783) displayed two distinct types of response (Fig. 1). One group included.

cultivars Haibushi, Ishigaki-2 and Kurodane-Kinugasa, which showed a large reduction of about 16-20% in both shoot extension and water potential under unirrigated dry conditions ; these produced a higher number of pods per plant and seed yield than cultivars Kentucky Wonder and 92783. Cultivars Kentucky Wonder and 92783, which formed a separate group, displayed a comparatively smaller reduction (4-8%) in both water potential and shoot growth under unirrigated dry conditions. On the other hand, the former group displayed a smaller reduction in leaf water content while the latter group displayed a larger reduction in leaf water content. These results indicate that the maintenance ability of relatively higher leaf water content with increasing water deficit plays an important role in terms of higher pod setting, pod retention and seed yield in snap bean under stressed conditions.
　　The leaf water content was positively correlated to photosynthetic parameters such as stomata conductance and intercellular CO2. The cultivars with a smaller midday drop in leaf water content showed a higher pod setting ratio and produced a larger number of pods per plant and consequently gave higher yields than plants with a larger midday drop in leaf water content (Fig. 2). 

　　From these results, it can be concluded that leaf water content plays an important role in maintaining better photosynthetic conditions and, thus, higher pod/seed production under heat and drought conditions, and is maintained by reduction in leaf water potential and shoot extension in response to heat and drought stresses. These traits can thus be used as a marker to screen germplasm for heat and drought tolerance.

(H. Omae, A. Kumar, K. Kahiwaba, and M. Shono)

Fig. 1. Relationship of reduction (ratio of unirrigated to irrigated control in percentage) in leaf water potential with leaf water content and shoot extension in 5 cultivars of snap bean. Each dotted circle encloses a group of cultivars/strains identified by discriminant analysis. *: P < 0.05. Fig. 2. Association of midday drop in leaf water content (ratio of leaf water content at midday to morning) with the number of pods per plant and seed yield. The measurements were taken in 8 cultivars under irrigated and unirrigated hot conditions during the reproductive stage. *: P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01.

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Basic wood properties of Acacia mangium in Sabah, Malaysia

　　The forestry industry is still one of the most important industries in Sabah, despite the rapid shrinkage of forested areas. Logs for timber are produced mainly from natural forests and partly from plantation forests in Southeast Asia. In the case of Sabah, for example, logs produced from natural forests and plantation forests totaled 2,588,417 m³ and 250,018 m³, respectively, in 2001. Of logs from natural forests, species of Dipterocarpaceae are the most important element, making up 65.8% of the total volume. However, these valuable resources are now precipitously declining as a result of overexploitation of the natural forests, and there is an urgent need to consider the sustainable supply and effective utilization of timber. It is thus very important to increase the share of timber from plantation forests to prevent the degradation of natural forests. Acacia mangium is the commonest plantation tree species in Southeast Asia. In Sabah, out of a total 130,655 ha of forest plantation, 106,581 ha are planted with fast-growing species, of which A. mangium account for about 72%. However, 94.6% of logs of A. mangium produced in 2002 were exported to other countries without any processing in Sabah. The purpose of this study was to investigate the basic wood properties of A. mangium to enable more effective use of its timber. 

　　For the investigation of basic wood properties such as wood density and length of wood fiber, 13 year old Acacia mangium Willd. trees in the plantation of Segaliud Lokan of the Forest Research Centre of Sabah (FRC) were investigated. In 2003, eleven trees of several sizes (height: 21.8 –33.7 m, DBH: 14.3 – 42.8 cm) were cut, and sample disks were collected every 2 m, starting at breast height. After drying in an air-conditioned room, a disk at each position was cut into strips 3 cm wide, containing pith, using a bandsaw. The strips were divided into small blocks every 3 cm (1 cm at the strip taken at DBH) from the pith using a hatchet. The air-dried densities of each block were measured using a floating method. Small pieces of wood were taken from the blocks every 3 cm (1 cm at the strip taken at DBH) from the pith, and macerated using Franklin’s method (6% acetic acid, 6% hydrogen peroxide, 60 ˚C x 48 hrs). The length of the wood fibers was measured under a light microscope equipped with a measurement system (VM-60N Video Micrometer, Olympus)

　　Fig. 1 shows the radial variation in wood density and the length of wood fibers at breast height in the trunks. The wood density and the length of wood fibers increased from the pith to the bark, and showed almost constant values in the outer part from 9 cm distance from the pith. Fig. 2 shows longitudinal variation in the wood density and length of wood fiber. There was no significant difference in the pattern of radial variation of the wood density and the fiber length among the disks taken from different height positions on the trunk.

　　These results indicate that the wood outer part from 9 cm from the pith has uniform properties in A. mangium planted in Sabah. This means that trees with a higher growth rate produce more wood with uniform properties than trees with a lower growth rate. Our results are of potential use as fundamental data for the industry to utilize A. mangium timber more effectively, and for policymakers to select sites for plantations of A. mangium.

Fig. 1. Radial variation of (A) wood density and (B) length of wood fiber at breast height of trunks of A. mangium.

Fig. 2. Positional change in the radial variations of (A) wood density, and of (B) length of wood fiber with height of trunk of A. mangium.

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The biosorptive effect of untreated and chemically modified fir cone powder on Pb(II) removal

Published Date
Original

First Online: 

08 November 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s00107-016-1123-1

Cite this article as: 

Mânzatu, C., Nagy, B. & Majdik, C. Eur. J. Wood Prod. (2016). doi:10.1007/s00107-016-1123-1

Author

• Carmen Mânzatu
• Boldizsár Nagy
• Cornelia MajdikEmail

Abstract

In this work, the main aim was to investigate the adsorption potential of untreated and chemically modified (sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide treatment) fir cone powder (Abies alba) for the removal of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions. The effect of contact time, initial concentration of Pb(II), initial pH and temperature was studied in a batch process mode. Adsorption isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin–Radushkevich (D–R) and Temkin) and kinetics (pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order) models for both processes (treated and untreated) were used to analyse the equilibrium data. The kinetic data were found to fit better the pseudo-second-order. Maximum adsorption capacities calculated using the Langmuir model are 4.8 and 2.9 mg/g for NaOH and H2O2 treated fir cone powder, respectively, and 3.7 mg/g for untreated fir cone powder. The results indicate that the NaOH treatment increases the fir cone powder adsorption capacity, while the H2O2 treated biomass showed a slight decrease in its adsorption capacity in comparison to the untreated one.

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