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Sunday 13 March 2016

AREOLE

In botany, areoles are small light- to dark-colored bumps on cacti, out of which grow clusters of spines. Areoles are important diagnostic features of cacti, and identify them as a family distinct from other succulent plants. The spines are not easily detachable, but on certain cacti, members of the subfamily Opuntioideae, smaller, detachable bristles, glochids, also grow out of the areoles and afford additional protection.
Aeroles and spines of the tree-like Pereskia grandifoli.
Areoles represent highly specialized branches on cacti. Apparently, they evolved as abortive branch buds while their spines evolved as vestigial leaves. In branched cacti, such as Opuntioidiae and the saguaro, new branches grow from areoles, because that is where the buds are. The development of the areole seems to have been an important element in the adaptation of cacti to niches in desert ecology.
Some of the Opuntioideae have spines, as well as glochids, on their areoles; some have only glochids. Structurally, the glochids seem to be bristles rather than evolved leaves. They are detachable and resemble small, sharp splinters. Unlike the spines, glochids generally are barbed and are very difficult to remove from the skin.
Evolution
The cactus family, the Cactaceae, evolved 30–40 million years ago in the Americasoriginally completely separately from Africa, Europe, and Asia, although, probably within the last few million years, some species of Rhipsalis appear to have been carried to parts of Asia and Africa most likely by birds.
The areole was one of the unique features that cacti developed, possibly in adaptation to the ambient climate in the area in which they emerged. Accordingly, the areoles distinguish the family Cactaceae from other succulent plants both in the New World and the Old World.
Importance
For the cacti, areoles are an important evolutionary modification. They give rise to spines and glochids, which are their primary means of self-defense. In addition, because these spines arise from areoles and not directly from the plant stem, cacti can more effectively cover themselves with spines than other plants. The spines themselves can be of greater size and number.
In addition, areoles can produce spines of many different types to suit their needs. A typical areole may have one or a few long, sharp central spines, which serve as the primary defense. Beneath them are often numerous (10 or more) smaller, radial spines produced around the edge of the areole. These may serve as a secondary defense against small creatures that can get past the central spines. In some species, though, such as Cephalocereus senilis, the tangle of hairy radial spines serves to shade the plant and retain a layer of cool, humid air next to it.
Areoles contributed largely to the evolutionary success of the Cactaceae throughout the range of the family, and account for the diversification seen in the many species today.
References

  1. ^ Anderson, Edward F., The Cactus Family, Pub: Timber Press 2001 ISBN 978-0-88192-498-5

- Wikipedia 

What Is Quercetin?

Although not an essential nutrient, quercetin is a substance found in some fruits and vegetables that may provide important antioxidant effects. You can take quercetin supplements to help in treating a wide variety of health conditions, such as allergies, heart disease, prostatitis and certain eye conditions. Talk with your healthcare provider before taking quercetin tablets or capsules to discuss proper dosage and any potential health risks or interactions.
What Is Quercetin?

Person holding a glass of red wine to the sky Photo Credit amana productions inc./amana images/Getty Images

Description

Quercetin is a water-soluble substance that gives certain fruits and vegetables their coloring, explains the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. These plant-based pigments are called bioflavonoids. Quercetin is found in small doses in beans and leafy green vegetables, but in larger amounts in onions, apples, grapefruits, red wine, buckwheat, green tea and black tea.

Benefits

Quercetin supplements may help to treat allergies, inflammation and cardiovascular diseases, as well as potentially prevent and treat cancer, says the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Quercetin may also help to treat eczema, asthma, hives, prostatitis and interstitial cystitis. Some medical evidence indicates that taking quercetin supplements can help treat cataracts, certain childhood diseases, gout, edema, peptic ulcers, diabetes and retinopathy, notes the University of Michigan Health System. You can take the typical dosage of 200 to 500 milligrams of quercetin two or three times daily. For therapeutic uses, you must take a supplement, because vegetables and fruits contain only small amounts of quercetin.

Function

Quercetin contains bioflavonoids, which provide the antioxidant properties that help fight free radicals in the body. Quercetin’s bioflavonoids also suppress your body’s histamine and leukotriene production, which provide the anti-inflammatory actions and allergic reaction-fighting effects. The major constituents in quercetin may also inhibit cholesterol absorption, as well as provide antiviral and anticancer actions.

Medical Evidence

Quercetin is shown effective against numerous conditions. According to the University of Michigan Health System, studies prove quercetin's ability to fight and help treat prostatitis, allergies, asthma, heart disease, cataracts, viral infections, hay fever, gout and type 1 and type 2 diabetes. It is also shown to enhance athletic performance and treat bronchial infections that can follow intensive exercise.

Warnings

If you’re pregnant, you shouldn’t take quercetin supplements due to the potential risk of infant leukemia and possible chromosomal mutations. Also, if your doctor is conducting a test to diagnose the rare but deadly condition called neuroblastoma, keep in mind that taking quercetin supplements may cause a falsely positive test result due to their effects on homovanillic acid levels in your blood and urine.
www.livestrong.com

Maximum Dosage of Vitamin C

Vitamin C is water-soluble; meaning, it is not stored in your body. You need to consume adequate amounts of vitamin C each day to get all of the benefits it provides. Having too much vitamin C from your diet or supplements may have adverse effects. Do not consume more than the maximum recommended dosage each day.
Maximum Dosage of Vitamin C
Strawberries are an excellent source of vitamin C. Photo Credit Ablestock.com/AbleStock.com/Getty Images

Maximum Dosage

Women need around 75 mg of vitamin C daily, while men need as much as 90 mg. Since vitamin C is water soluble, your body will excrete any excess vitamin C that it doesn't need. You can safely consume up to 2000 mg, reports the Office of Dietary Supplements. Having more than 2000 mg, or 2 g, of vitamin C in your diet may cause adverse health effects.

Benefits

You may take extra vitamin C during winter months to help boost your immune system, but vitamin C has several other benefits. Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant in your body, meaning it helps fight off free radicals that damage cells and cause chronic illnesses. Your overall growth and tissue repair rely heavily on the vitamin C you consume. Collagen production cannot occur without vitamin C. You need collagen to make new skin, tendons, ligaments and cartilage. Vitamin C also helps repair and produce blood vessels and keeps vessels dilated to improve blood flow.

Negative Effects

Dosages at or over 2,000 mg, or 2 g, of vitamin C are considered a very high dosage. If you consume this much, you may have a greater risk of kidney stones, birth defects, atherosclerosis, excessive iron absorption, B-12 deficiency and erosion of dental enamel. In addition to this, consuming more than the maximum dosage of vitamin C may cause gastrointestinal problems such as bloating and diarrhea. Excessive Vitamin C intake is more commonly seen with supplementation.

Food Sources

Your body utilizes vitamin C better when it comes from food sources instead of supplements. Fruits and vegetables are naturally loaded with vitamin C. Enjoy a 6-oz. glass of orange juice, which contains 93 mg. Other fruit selections include a medium kiwi, which has 75 mg; 1/2 cup of fresh strawberries with 49 mg; or half a grapefruit, which has 39 mg. A 1/2-cup serving of raw red peppers provides 95 mg; 1/2 cup of steamed broccoli contains 39 mg; a medium baked potato has about 20 mg; and 1/2 cup of raw cauliflower florets provides 23 mg.
www.livestrong.com

Nutrition Risk Factors of a Adult Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian Diet

All types of vegetarian diets including lacto-ovo vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate when properly planned, according to the American Dietetic Association. It also notes that vegetarian diets may provide health benefits including the prevention of certain diseases. However, if your lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is not carefully planned to ensure all nutrient requirements are met, you may be at risk for nutrient deficiencies.
Nutrition Risk Factors of a Adult Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian Diet

Poorly planned vegetarian diets increase your risk for nutrient deficiencies. Photo Credit VvoeVale/iStock/Getty Images

Background

Lacto-ovo vegetarians typically consume eggs and dairy products in addition to plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds and soy products. Key nutrients for vegetarians include omega-3 fatty acids, protein, iron, zinc, iodine, calcium and vitamins B-12 and D. Although these nutrients are important for vegetarians, lacto-ovo vegetarians who consume plenty of dairy products and eggs generally get adequate amounts of protein, calcium, iodine and vitamins B-12 and D.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Although some plant-based foods, such as canola oil and soybeans, contain omega-3 fatty acid ALA, they do not provide omega-3s DHA or EPA. Most studies that showed favorable effects of omega-3 on heart health or cognitive development of infants and children used DHA, EPA or both. The American Dietetic Association notes that DHA in breast milk is present in lower amounts in nursing women who follow a vegan or lacto-ovo vegetarian diet compared with non-vegetarian nursing moms. Common sources of DHA and EPA are found in fish and fish oils, DHA fortified foods or macroalgae-derived DHA supplements. Most obstetricians encourage pregnant and nursing women to take prenatal vitamin supplements that contain the omega-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA.

Iron

Iron-deficiency anemia is a concern in poorly planned vegetarian diets. Heme iron, the type of iron that is best absorbed by the human body, is found in animal-based foods such red meats, oysters and clams. Although nonheme iron is in plant-based foods, such as legumes and fortified whole grains, it is poorly absorbed compared with heme iron sources. The American Dietetic Association reports that iron intake recommendations for vegetarians are 1.8 times higher than for nonvegetarians. The Foods lacto-ovo vegetarians commonly eat, such as dietary calcium, phytates in legumes and whole grains and soybeans may inhibit nonheme iron absorption in the body. Taking a multivitamin supplement containing iron may help prevent your risk for developing iron-deficiency anemia.

Zinc

Lacto-ovo vegetarians have an increased risk for zinc deficiency because meats are a main source of zinc. Beans and grains usually have compounds that can inhibit zinc absorption in the body, and vegetarians may require up to 50 percent more zinc than non-vegetarians. The Office of Dietary Supplements notes that exclusively breast-fed infants over 6 months of age are at risk for zinc deficiency if they don’t consume pureed meats, as breast milk doesn’t provide enough zinc for infants over 6 months old. Sources of zinc for lacto-ovo vegetarians include some multivitamin supplements and fortified baby yogurts.
www.livestrong.com

THORNS, SPINES, PRICKLES

In plant morphology, thorns, spines, prickles, and in general spinose structures (as spinose teethspinose apical process) are all hard structures with sharp, stiff ends, generally with the same function of physically deterring animals from eating the plant material.
In common language the terms are used more or less interchangeably, but in botanical terms, thorns are derived from shoots (so they can be branched or not, they can have leaves or not, and they arise from a bud), spines are derived from leaves (the entire leaf or some part of the leaf that has vascular bundles inside, like the petiole or a stipule), and prickles are derived from the epidermis (so they can be found anywhere on the plant, and do not have vascular bundles inside so they can be removed more easily and cleanly than thorns and spines)
Leaf margins also may have teeth, and if those teeth are sharp, they are called spinose teeth on a spinose leaf margin some authors consider them a kind of spine). On a leaf apex, if there is an apical process (generally an extension of the midvein), and if it is specially sharp, stiff, and spinelike, it can be called spinose or pungent apical process (again, some authors call them a kind of spine). When epidermis is covered with very long, stiff trichomes (more correctly called bristles in this case, for some authors a kind of prickle) is called hispid vestiture if is covered with stinging trichomes it can be called urent vestiture.
Function
The predominant function of thorns, spines and prickles is deterring herbivory in a mechanical form.
Not all functions of spines or glochids are limited to defence from physical attacks by herbivores and other animals. In some cases, spines have been shown to shade or insulate the plants that grow them: for example, the saguaro cactus spines shade the apical meristem in summer and in members of the Opuntioideae glochids insulate the apical meristem in winter.
Agrawal et al. (2000) found that spines seem to have little effect on pollinators, which the plants need in order to reproduce.
Definition and Technical Distinction
Pointing or spinose processes can broadly be divided by the presence of vascular tissue: thorns and spines are derived from shoots and leaves respectively, and have vascular bundles inside, whereas prickles (like rose prickles) do not have vascular bundles inside, so they can be removed more easily.

  • Thorns are modified branches or stems. They may be simple or branched.
  • Spines are modified leaves, stipules, or parts of leaves, such as extensions of leaf veins.

  • Prickles are comparable to hairs but can be quite coarse (for example, rose prickles), i.e. they are extensions of the cortex and epidermis.
Spinescent is a term describing plants that bear any sharp structures that deters herbivory. It also can refer to the state of tending to be or become spiny in some sense or degree, as in: "...the division of the African acacias on the basis of spinescent stipules versus non-spinescent stipules..."
Some authors prefer not to distinguish spines from thorns because, like thorns, and unlike prickles, they commonly contain vascular tissue.
Technically speaking, many plants commonly thought of as having thorns or spines actually have prickles. Roses, for instance, have prickles.
Other structures that look alike are spinose teeth, spinose apical process, stiff trichomes and stinging trichomes.

Types of Spines

Cacti can have a particular kind of spine (modified leaf) very small and deciduous, with numerous retrorse barbs along its length, this particular spine is called glochidium or glochid (plural glochidia or glochids), as found in areoles of Opuntia. Spines can be petiolar spines as those of Foquieria, leaflet spines as in Phoenix, stipular spines as in Euphorbia, all those are examples of spines developing from a part of a leaf containing the petiole, midrib, or a secondary vein.

Evolution

It has been proposed that thorny structures may first have evolved as a defense mechanism in plants growing in sandy environments that provided inadequate resources for fast regeneration of damage. However, the suggestion was unsupported by any argument to discount the likelihood that spiny defences might have been developed as a means of defence in resource-rich environments where herbivory might have been more intense than in the hypothesized sandy environments.

Morphological Variation
Spinose structures occur in a wide variety of ecologies, and their morphology also varies greatly. They occur as:
  • sharpened branches (e.g. in Carissa, Citrus, Crataegus).
  • spiky inflorescences (e.g. in Tylecodon reticulatus).
  • a tiny point at the tip of the leaf (mucronate leaves) (e.g. in Sansevieria).
  • leaves fully converted to spines (e.g. in Opuntia)
  • stipules converted to spines (e.g. in many Acacia).
  • prickles on stems (e.g. of Rosa, Erythrina and Ceiba speciosa).
  • urticating (i.e. stinging) hairs.
  • bristles, and
  • finely barbed spines called glochids.
Some thorns are hollow and act as myrmecodomatiam, others (e.g. in Crataegus monogyna, bear leaves. Thorns of some species are branched (e.g. in Crataegus crus-galli, Carissa macrocarpa).
In Human Culture
Primitive humans are known to have used thorns as tools. Human history records a variety of cultural references to sharp-pointed plant defensive mechanisms.
The Book of Genesis recounts the creation of thorns as one of the punishments for the sin of Adam and Eve, stating, "Thorns also and thistles shall [the ground] bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field." Genesis, 3:18. One of the most enduring cultural images is the Crown of Thorns described in the Bible as having been placed on the head of Jesus before his crucifixion. It is mentioned in the Gospels of Matthew (27:29), Mark (15:17), and John (19:2, 5) and is often alluded to by the early Christian Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen and others. For example, John's Gospel states that "the soldiers plaited a crown of thorns, and put it on his head". (KJV, ch. 19). The biblical account does not specify what kind of thorns were involved, and leaves no clues from which to determine whether these were biologically classifiable as thorns, spines, or prickles.
An early popular myth involving a thorn is that of Androcles, a fugitive slave in ancient Greece who was said to have befriended a lion by pulling a thorn from the lion's paw.
The status of the Scottish Thistle as the national emblem of Scotland is founded on the story (recounted here) that an invading Norse army attempting a night attack was betrayed when they encountered a thistle in the dark.
Plants bearing thorns, spines, or prickles are often used as a defense against burglary, being strategically planted below windows or around the entire perimeter of a property. They also have been used to protect crops and livestock against marauding animals. Examples include hawthorn hedges in Europe, Agaves in the Americas and in other countries where they have been introduced, Osage Orange in the prairie states of the US, and Sansevieria in Africa.
In modern times, the study of acanthochronology has used the oxygen isotope composition of spines from saguaro cactus to determine historical changes in local rainfall and reconstruct climate and plant ecophysiology over the plant's lifetime.
References
General references:
  • Simpson, M. G. 2010. "Plant Morphology". In: Plant Systematics, 2nd. edition. Elsevier Academic Press. Chapter 9.
  • Judd, Campbell, Kellogg, Stevens, Donoghue. 2007. "Structural and Biochemical Characters". In: Plant Systematics, a phylogenetic approach, third edition. Chapter 4.
  1. a b c d e f g h i j Simpson, M. G. 2010. "Plant Morphology". In: Plant Systematics, 2nd. edition. Elsevier Academic Press. Chapter 9.
  2. a b c d e f g h Judd, Campbell, Kellogg, Stevens, Donoghue. 2007. "Structural and Biochemical Characters". In: Plant Systematics, a phylogenetic approach, third edition. Chapter 4.
  3. a b c d Turner et al. 2005, Sonoran Desert Plants, an Ecological Atlas. University of Arizona Press.
  4. a b c Van Wyk, Van Wyk. 2007. How to identify trees in South Africa. Struik.
  5. ^ Agrawal, A, A., Rudgers, A, J., Botsford, W, L., Cutler, S., Gorin, B, J., Lundquist, C, J., Spitzer, W, B., & Swann, L, A. (2000). Benefits and Constraints on Plant Defense against Herbivores: Spines Influence the Legitimate and Illegitimate Flower Visitors of Yellow Star Thistle, Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae). JSTOR, 45(1), 1-5. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3672545. retrieved 2012-03-20
  6. ^ Van Wyk, Braam (2007). How to Identify Trees in Southern Africa (illustrated ed.). Struik. p. 184. ISBN 9781770072404.
  7. ^ Sengbusch, Peter (2003-07-31). "Cross-Section Through the Prickle of a Rose". Retrieved 2009-04-27.
  8. ^ Ross, J. H. "A conspectus of the African Acacia species." Series: Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 44 Botanical Research Institute, Dept. of Agricultural Technical Services, Pretoria, 1979
  9. a b Bell, A.D. 1997. Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. preview in google books.
  10. ^ Steve Brill, Evelyn Dean, Identifying and Harvesting Edible and Medicinal Plants (1994), p. 17.
- Wikipedia 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fasting for Runners

Author BY   ANDREA CESPEDES  Food is fuel, especially for serious runners who need a lot of energy. It may seem counterintuiti...