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Tuesday 31 October 2017

Acacia Mangium

Australian New Crops Info 2016



This species is usually known as:
Acacia mangium

This species has also been known as:
Acacia mangium var. holosericea

Common names:

Black Wattle, Hickory Wattle, Mangium, Forest Mangrove


Trends (five databases) 1901-2013:
[Number of papers mentioning Acacia mangium: 1213]

Acacia mangium.jpg

Popularity of Acacia mangium over time[Left-hand Plot: Plot of numbers of papers mentioning Acacia mangium (histogram and left hand axis scale of left-hand plot) and line of best fit, 1901 to 2013 if there are sufficient numbers of papers (equation and % variation accounted for in box); Right-hand Plot: Plot of a proportional micro index, derived from numbers of papers mentioning Acacia mangium as a proportion (scaled by multiplying by one million) of the approximate total number of papers available in databases for that year (frequency polygon and left-hand axis scale of right-hand plot) and line of best fit, 1901 to 2013 if there are sufficient numbers of papers (equation and % variation accounted for in box)] 
Keywords
[Total number of keywords included in the papers that mentioned this species: 7918]

Acacia mangium (224), Acacia auriculiformis (56), Internet resource (53), Growth (46), Acacia (42), Nitrogen fixation (39), Phosphorus (34), Biochar (33), forest plantations (33), Bradyrhizobium (29), Eucalyptus (27), nitrogen (26), Reforestation (25), Borneo (24), Malaysia (24), afforestation (23), Agroforestry (23), Soil fertility (23), biomass (22), carbon sequestration (22), seedlings (22), Indonesia (21), Plantation (21), nodulation (20), forest trees (18), Brazil (17), height (17), Competition (16), forest restoration (16), plant characteristics (16), plantations (16), rhizobium (16), roots (16), wood (16), leaves (15), Panama (15), soil (15), Transpiration (15), Australia (14), deforestation (14), Forest (14), Soil respiration (14), symbiosis (14), Photosynthesis (13), species differences (13), trees (13), Biodiversity (12), climate change (12), hybrids (12), nitrogen-fixing trees (12), nitrous oxide (12), oil palm (12), Rhizobia (12), Tropical forest (12), vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (12), carbon (11), charcoal (11), diameter (11), Imperata cylindrica (11), nutrient uptake (11), restoration (11), shoots (11), Tannins (11), understory (11), Facilitation (10), Fungi (10), genetic variation (10), Natural regeneration (10), nutrient content (10), Plant growth (10), provenance (10), root nodules (10), Tree growth (10), China (9), culture media (9), E. Mechanical (9), ectomycorrhizae (9), Gmelina arborea (9), Humid tropics (9), meta-analysis (9), methane (9), restriction fragment length polymorphism (9), Sap flow (9), succession (9), Sustainability (9), Tannin (9), tropical forests (9), tropics (9), Acacia crassicarpa (8), biomass production (8), Carbon dioxide (8), diversity (8), Eucalyptus grandis (8), Falcataria moluccana (8), forest management (8), India (8), inoculation (8), land use (8), Leaf area (8), logging (8), Microsatellite (8), nitrogen content (8), pruning (8), REDD (8), Silviculture (8), soil quality (8), stand establishment (8), tree age (8), Vietnam (8), A. Natural materials (7).....



Most likely scope for crop use/product (%):
[Please note: When there are only a few papers mentioning a species, care should be taken with the interpretation of these crop use/product results; as well, a mention may relate to the use of a species, or the context in which it grows, rather than a product]

charcoal (66.91), timber (8.51), tannin (2.86), medicinal (2.62), wood fibre (2.43), soil amelioration (2.39), resin (2.04), poison (1.74), companion plant (1.71), cane/bamboo (1.34).....


For further details log on website :
http://www.newcrops.info/listing/species_pages_A/Acacia_mangium.htm

The Effects of Weight Lifting on Degenerative Disc Disease

Author
by 
Some people begin to suffer from degenerative disc disease, or DDD, as they age. This happens when the discs in between your vertebra begin to wear down and become damaged. If you have back pain that spreads down to your upper thighs and buttocks, you may have DDD. Weightlifting may help improve your DDD symptoms if done properly, but you shouldn't start to lift weights without first discussing it with your doctor or physical therapist.

Stabilization Program

If you suffer from lower back pain due to DDD, your physical therapist may have you undergo a stabilization program, which involves exercises using your body weight that increase the strength of your core muscles. This can help prepare you for safely lifting weights to further strengthen your muscles and limit your back pain. Examples of stabilization exercises include lying on your back and marching your feet, bridges and lying on your stomach and raising opposite arms and legs
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Weight Training

Once your doctor or physical therapist approves weight training, choose exercises that strengthen your back, abdominals, legs and arms so you limit the pressure put on your spine during your daily activities. While lifting weights, pause at the top before lowering the weights, as a study published in 2001 in the "British Journal of Sports Medicine" found that this combination of dynamic and static weight training most effective for strengthening the muscles involved in chronic lower back pain.

Weight Lifting Safety

While weight training, take steps to limit your risk for further injury. Use low weights and higher repetitions rather than using heavy weights, try to use machines instead of free weights and use a spotter when you do use free weights. Ask your doctor whether he recommends you wear a weight belt while lifting to help protect your back.

Considerations

If you have degenerative disc disease, speak with your doctor or physical therapist to verify which exercises you should perform and how much weight you should lift. Certain exercises are not recommended for people with back problems, including the dead-lift, snatch, clean-and-jerk and squat, as these are more likely to harm your back.
For further information log on website :
https://www.livestrong.com/article/553835-the-effects-of-weight-lifting-on-degenerative-disc-disease/

Gym Exercises You Can Do With a Slipped Disc

Author
by 

The role of a spinal disc is to provide a cushion between the vertebrae of your spine. When one of these discs slips out of place, the result is back in the lower back, with pain and numbness sometimes extending down into the legs with the constriction of the sciatic nerve. After the initial pain of a slipped disc has settled, you can carefully begin rehabilitation with exercise. Consult with your doctor to ensure you are healthy enough to begin an exercise program. Exercising without a doctor's consent may worsen a slipped disc.

Lower Back Stretch

The lower back stretch can relieve tightness of the muscles around the spine that may be causing discomfort to your slipped disc. To perform a lower back stretch, lie on your back on the floor. Keep your arms at your sides and bend your knees. Rotate your knees over to one side as far as they can go, and hold the position for at least 20 seconds. Breathe normally, do not hold your breath. Once 20 seconds has passed, move your knees to the other side for another 20 seconds.
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Aerobic Exercise

In addition to cardiovascular benefits, aerobic exercise is a low-impact way of strengthening the muscles of your back, glutes and legs. In particular, swimming has been shown to decrease back pain, according to the "New York Times Health Guide." Other options include jogging and riding a bicycle.

Crunches

Abdominal strength is a major component of a healthy back, according to the Sports Injury Bulletin. To perform abdominal crunches, lie flat on your back with your knees bent and your feet on the ground. Your hands should be at your chest. Contract your abdominal muscles to crunch the shoulders and head off the floor, then return to neutral position. Do not sit up all the way. Repeat for a total of 8 to 10 repetitions.

Supermans

Supermans strengthen your abdominal muscles and your glutes. To perform a superman, get down on all fours. Both knees and both hands should be touching the ground in a neutral position. Slowly extend your left arm straight forward. At the same time, raise your right leg and extend it straight backwards. Hold the position for three seconds and then do the other side. Perform 8 to 20 repetitions per side.

Plank

Lie on your stomach on the floor. Prop yourself up on your elbows, then raise up to your toes so that only your elbows and toes are touching the ground. Keep your back straight, do not let your hips dip or curve. Hold this position for 10 to 30 seconds.

Back Extensions

Lie face down on the ground with your hands behind your head. Raise your chest and head off the ground while simultaneously contracting your glutes to raise your legs. Lower, and repeat for 8 to 10 repetitions.
For further information log on website :
https://www.livestrong.com/article/200670-gym-exercises-for-a-slipped-disc/

Scalable, anisotropic transparent paper directly from wood for light management in solar cells

Author
ChaoJia1TianLi1ChaojiChen1JiaqiDaiIain MichaelKierzewskiJianweiSongYijuLiChunpengYangChengweiWangLiangbingHu
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
Received 17 March 2017, Revised 30 April 2017, Accepted 30 April 2017, Available online 1 May 2017.

Highlights

A simple yet efficient “top-down” method for fabricating anisotropic transparent paper directly from wood was developed.
The wood-derived paper has anisotropic microstructures and light scattering due to the well-aligned cellulose fibers.
The anisotropic paper possesses both high transparency and high haze, enabling its utilization in GaAs solar cells.
The “top-down” approach for preparing anisotropic transparent paper is facile, scalable, cost-effective and “green”.

Abstract

The growing demand for flexible electronics and solar energy conversion devices has fueled a search for high-quality paper-based materials with excellent mechanical flexibility and optical properties such as high transparency and haze. Despite the tremendous efforts have been dedicated to developing paper-based materials with high transparency or high haze, challenges still remain in achieving both due to the general exclusivity between them. Here, for the first time, we develop a novel anisotropic paper material possessing high mechanical flexibility and fantastic optical properties with both high transmittance (~90%) and high haze (~90%) simultaneously via a simple yet effective “top-down” approach by directly shear pressing the delignified wood material. The anisotropic transparent paper demonstrates a high efficiency as a light management coating layer for GaAs solar cell with a significant efficiency enhancement of 14% due to its excellent light management capability with both high transparency and high haze. The presented “top-down” approach is facile, scalable, cost-effective and “green”, representing a promising direction for developing flexible electronics, solar energy conversion devices and beyond.

Graphical abstract

We demonstrated a highly simple yet efficient “top-down” method for fabricating anisotropic transparent paper by directly shear pressing the delignified wood. The anisotropic paper with both high transmittance of ~90% and high haze of ~90% can be used as a light management coating layer to significantly improve the energy conversion efficiency of GaAs solar cells.
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Vitae

Chao Jia received the B.S. degree in Packaging Engineering from Agricultural University of Hebei, Hebei, China in 2010. He obtained the M.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Jiangnan University, Jiangsu, China in 2013. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Materials Science and Engineering at Beijing Institute of Technology. From 2015 to 2017, he is an exchange Ph.D. student under the supervision of Prof. Liangbing Hu at University of Maryland College Park. His research interests include flexible electronics, nanomaterials and energy conversion.
Tian Li received the B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China in 2010, and Ph.D. degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from University of Maryland, College Park, USA, in 2015. She is currently a Postdoctoral Research Scholar with Dr. Liangbing Hu in University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA. Her research interests include light and thermal energy harvesting and management. She received the ECE Distinguished Dissertation Fellowship and Outstanding Graduate Assistant Award in 2015 for the recognition of her Ph.D. work.
Chaoji Chen received his B.S. (2010) and Ph.D (2015) degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), P.R.China. He is currently a postdoctoral researcher in HUST. His research focuses on nanomaterials for energy storage and water treatment.
Jiaqi Dai received his B.S degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Harbin Institute of Technology (2013), China. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in materials engineering under the supervision of Prof. Liangbing Hu at University of Maryland, College Park, USA. His research mainly focus on nanotechnologies, advanced energy storage devices, and scientific visualizations.
Iain M. Kierzewski received the B.S. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from the University of Maryland (UMD), College Park, in 2012. He is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering at UMD. Since 2013, he has been a process engineer at the Adelphi Lab Center working on MEMS power components. His research interests include magnetic, electronic, and bio-inspired materials for energy harvesting applications.
Jianwei Song is now a Ph.D. candidate in School of Light Industry and Engineering at South China University of Technology, and is currently an exchange Ph.D. Candidate in Department of Materials Science and Engineering at University of Maryland. His current research focuses on biomass for functional and structural materials.
Yiju Li received his B.S. degree from Harbin Engineering University in 2013. He is currently an exchange Ph.D. student in University of Maryland, College Park. His research focuses on nanomaterials for electrochemical energy storage and conversion.
Chunpeng Yang received his Ph.D. degree from University of Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2016 and B.S. degree from University of Science and Technology of China in 2011. He is currently a postdoctoral researcher in the group of Liangbing Hu in University of Maryland at College Park. His research focuses on materials for advanced energy-storage systems, such as lithium metal batteries and solid-state batteries.
Chengwei Wang received his B.S. (2011) from University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), P.R.China and Ph.D (2015) from Arizona State University in Materials Science and Engineering. He is currently an Assistant Research Scientist at Maryland University, College Park. His research focuses on solid state batteries and nanomaterials for ionic devices.
Liangbing Hu received his B.S. in applied physics from the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) in 2002. He did his Ph.D. at UCLA, focusing on carbon nanotube based nanoelectronics. In 2006, he joined Unidym Inc as a co-founding scientist. He worked at Stanford University from 2009 to 2011, where he work on various energy devices based on nanomaterials and nanostructures. Currently, he is an associate professor at University of Maryland College Park. His research interests include nanomaterials and nanostructures, flexible and printed electronics, energy storage and conversion, and roll-to-roll nanomanufacturing.
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
For further details logon website :
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211285517302707

Wednesday 25 October 2017

Threat of Subterranean Termites Attack in the Asian Countries and their Control: A Review

Author
Eko KuswantoIntan Ahmad and Rudi Dungani


ABSTRACT


This review focuses on the study of subterranean termites as structural and building pests especially in Asia Tropical countries. Since wood is one of the oldest, most important and most versatile building materials and still widely utilized by home owners in the region. Subterranean termites have long been a serious pest of wooden construction and they are still causing an important problem in most of tropical and subtropical regions. This termite group is build shelter tubes and nest in the soil or on the sides of trees or building constructions and relies principally on soil for moisture. Subterranean termite damage on building and other wooden structure cause costs associated with the prevention and treatment of termite infestation. Termite control, thus, is a realistic problem not only for human life but also for conservation of natural environment. All countries especially Asian countries are now seeking for the safer chemicals or the more effective methods for termite control. A huge amount of research in recent years has been devoted to termite control technologies to reduce environmental contamination and the risk to human health.


How to cite this article:


Eko Kuswanto, Intan Ahmad and Rudi Dungani, 2015. Threat of Subterranean Termites Attack in the Asian Countries and their Control: A Review. Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, 8: 227-239.


DOI: 10.3923/ajaps.2015.227.239 


URL: http://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ajaps.2015.227.239


Received: May 29, 2015; Accepted: July 13, 2015; Published: July 29, 2015



INTRODUCTION
Termites play vital roles in tropical ecosystems. As ecosystem engineers, their mounds modify habitats in ways that can affect the survival of other species (Jouquet et al., 2006). They feed on a very wide variety of organic detritus like dry grass, decaying leaves, animal dung, humus and living or dead wood (Brossard et al., 2007). However, termite also becomes of considerable economic importance if introduced to man modified environments such as houses, buildings and cultivated crops (Gay, 1969) as termites continue the act of cycling as ecosystem engineer. Attacks on buildings are usually initiated from a nest in the ground. Termites build one or several galleries on trees or walls of the building to reach the cellulose, including wood, in a building. Once inside the building, termites will continue to maintain contact with the ground (for moisture) and the nest center (the center of the communication). In tropical regions, due to their high diversity of termites, they do a very serious damage (Ghaly and Edwards, 2011).


Facts on the field indicate that the subterranean termites attack against buildings mainly occur in areas formerly forested land or plantation (Mo et al., 2006). Land clearing of forest or plantation for the expansion of human settlements are often left stump and piles of litter scattered on or in the ground. In other words, the condition of the residential areas provide abundant food source for termites. Termites doing ecological adaptation and become serious menace to both plants and structures. They cause significant losses to annual and perennial crops and damage to wooden components in buildings (Verma et al., 2009).


Of the 2,700 termite species known in the world, 80 termite species were considered serious pests (Lee and Chung, 2003) and subterranean termites accounted for 38 species, with the genus Coptotermes containing the largest number of species followed by MacrotermesReticulitermes and Odototermes (Rust and Su, 2012). The global damage caused by termites was estimated at US $ 22 billion to US $ 40 billion worldwide (Su, 2002Rust and Su, 2012) and in Southeast Asia alone, it was estimated to cost approximately US $ 400 million per year (Lee, 2007). Furthermore, Rust and Su (2012) reported that subterranean termite cause economic losses was estimated that $ 32 billion in 2010 worldwide for control and damage repairs. Subterranean termites attack accounted for 90% of the total economic loss and about 70% of damage of construction. The main species of subterranean termite Coptotermes sp., is the most aggressive one.
Unlike in the temperate countries, it is common in Tropical Asia countries to find several termite pest species co-existing and infesting the same buildings and worse, other termite species can re-infest building structures after previous termite treatments have been successfully carried out. This condition has made termite control in the areas rather complicated. It is understood that the success of the management and control of termites depends on the accuracy of the information taxonomy of the target species (Matthews and Matthews, 1978) so as to identify the types of termites are potentially beneficial or detrimental in direct interaction with humans. Pesticide use will drive development and implementation of acceptable control strategies for subterranean termites. The implementation strategies of termite control is correlation between killing termites in the landscape and understanding of termite biology (Forschler and Jenkins, 2000).


Thus, the present review gives an overview of the subterranean termite pests when they damage wooden structure or any wood products used by humans. Existings of subterranean termite control and their success is discussed.

SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE COLONY
The most familiar form of termite nest is termite mound, however, not all species live in this sort of environment. Some of termite species prefer build their nest within dead or living trees, even a completely underground existence. Other species prefer to attach their nests to in places that are not directly in contact with the ground (tree, building) but maintain connection with the soil via mud galleries running down the surface of the trunk and wall. The ability of a termite colony to construct complex architectures despite the simplicity of its individuals is a conundrum not completely solved. The steps contributing to construction of colony in social insects are explained extensively by Theraulaz et al. (2003).


A termite colony is highly structured and has castes that perform distinctly different duties. There are three different castes in form and function. Recent studies indicate the caste system in termite colonies is very dynamic (Theraulaz et al., 2003). The reproductives produce all other members of the colony and play an important part in dispersal and formation of new colonies. There are three types of reproductives in a termite colony: the primary, secondary and tertiary reproductives. Recently, Hayashi et al. (2013) found that the termite colony Reticulitermes speratus that lost the primary reproductive castes will form the secondary reproductive castes (neotenic reproductive) within four to seven days. In the colony there is a main colony, where the main queen lives and satellite units, in which secondary reproductive are laying eggs. In underground, they are connected by a network of tunnels. Over time, these units may become isolated from one another to the point where the termites no longer interact. Type of colony expansion is called "budding", in which a number of the secondary reproductive and workers may split and form a new colonies independently.


Because the reasons for its invasive success, the termite colony may have to do with the flexible social and spatial organization of colonies. Colonies formed begin from a simple families headed by two primary (alate-derived) reproductives who produced from pair alate during mating flights (Raina et al., 2003). According to Pickens (1934) the primary reproductive caste produce a specific chemical substance, which can inhibit the development of female nymphs become neotenics (Pickens and Light, 1934). This inhibitor chemicals by Castle (1934) called primer pheromones. Furthermore, in the final stage, the primary queen and/or king will be supplemented or replaced by neotenics (non-alate derived reproductives) from within the colony. As colonies grow, they expand their foraging range reaching up to 50 m or more from the main nest (Su and Tamashiro, 1987). This colony sometimes form buds in which they separated (physically) from the rest of the colony to become independent colonies. According to Husseneder and Grace (2001), the termite colonies consisted of genetically distinct family units. Vargo et al. (2003) observed 30 colonies and found that 27 colonies contained a single pair of reproductives, whereas the remaining three colonies contained multiple related reproductives. This behaviour in world has been the focus of an intensive recent study of population and colony structure and colony-colony dynamics (Messenger et al., 2005).


The caste proportions that are normal in colonies of different species of termites. However, the discovery that juvenile hormone analogs can cause the production of excess soldiers in termite colonies has recently created interest in the normal proportions of soldiers (Bollazzi and Roces, 2007). They consist of 10-20% of the total colony members but the caste proportion varies with time (Lee, 2002b). The optimal proportion of soldiers for a species has apparently evolved through selection of the mix of castes that will minimize the energy expended in producing the maximum number of virgin males and females while maintaining adequate defense of the colony (Wilson, 1971). Many studies on distribution and abundance of termites, such as Lee and Lee (2011) had been study to understand population size and caste composition. They found that workers constituted the largest proportion (44.77%) of the total number, followed by larvae (39.09%), soldiers (15.37%) and pre-soldier (0.77%). An excess number of soldiers would burden the colony because the soldiers must be fed by food producing members. Such a disruption might break down the social structure of a colony and could be used t
o control termite populations.


In a subterranean termite colony, the workers leave the nest and forage for food wood or other sources of cellulose. They may travel as far as 90 m underground in their search (Puche and Su, 2001). When they find wood, they chew it up and bring it back to the nest to feed the other termites in the colony: Soldiers and reproductive termites. When a worker termite discovers a food source, it leaves a scent trail as it returns to the colony, so other workers can also find their way to the food. The tunneling strategy termite made for lowers the energy expenditure. Campora and Grace (2001) and the chances to locate new food source (Swoboda and Miller, 2004). According to Puche and Su (2001) that when the tunneling system is larger or longer, the strength of the termite cohort will diminish thus less tunnels are formed as the distance from the nest increases. Further reported by Swoboda and Miller (2004), that galleries are combined when termites had locate major or new food source. Houseman and Gold (2003) have been studying the tunneling rates in Reticulitermes flavipes. Their study suggest that tunneling rates are strongly influenced by environment include texture of soil, humidity and tactile orienting stimuli.


SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES ATTACK
Due to their diversity, termites are serious structural pests of homes and wood structures in the tropical and subtropical countries. One unique aspect of subterranean termites is that they have to discover food in soil by constructing underground tunnels (Su et al., 1984). Its biology, aggressiveness and hidden, unpredictable invasiveness make this insect difficult to detect and control. Subterranean termites have a cryptobiotic or "hidden" lifestyle. This cryptobiotic nature contributes to their success in invading human structures.
The pest status of subterranean termite is based on the damages caused by the termites to buildings construction including residential buildings. Subterranean termites, especially those from the subfamily Macrotermitinae (Odontotermes spp. and Macrotermes spp.) and Rhinotermitinae (Coptotermes spp.) are found to be attacking buildings in urban area and buildings in rural or suburban areas (Sornnuwat et al., 1996Kirton and Azmi, 2005). Apart from causing damages, subterranean termites, also has spread this species to countries beyond its native range via dispersal flights from shipboard infestations (Scheffrahn and Su, 2005).


The first known record of the presence of termites attack in the beginning of 20th century (Seabra, 1907). In the next period, the attacking-termites has been studied since the first half of the twentieth century. Starting in 1936, researchers have started to consider the subterranean termites are pests that cause severe damage in the region (Kirton and Azmi, 2005). Since then many records have been reported, however, with the data available so far, it is believed that their records are very important in knowing the economic loss due to termite attack. The history of research of the attack rate and the value of losses in buildings by several researchers are shown in Table 1.


Several reports among others by Nandika (2014)Sornnuwat et al. (1996)Lee (2004)Takahashi and Yoshimura (2002)Tai and Chen (2002) and Zhong and Liu (2002) the Asian subterranean termite attack on building have been shown not less than five species of subterranean termite (Coptotermes sp., Macrotermes sp., OdontotermesSchedorhinotermes sp. and Nasutitermes sp.), with Coptotermes sp., was the most dominant pest species found infesting (Fig. 1).
Coptotermes gestroi is the most economically important species in the South East Asia (Kirton and Brown, 2003Lee et al., 2003Kirton and Azmi, 2005). In Peninsular Malaysia, 85% of buildings infested by termites in urban area were caused by C. gestroi (Kirton and Azmi, 2005).
Fig. 1:Percentage of infestation of five termite species on wooden building

Table 1:Chronological order of events in the exploration of subterranean termite attack in Asian countries
While in Thailand, 90% of termite infestations in urban area were also caused by C. gestroi (Sornnuwat et al., 1996). Another Coptotermesspecies, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki is the most serious structural pest in Japan, Taiwan (Su and Hsu, 2003) and China (Zhong and Liu, 2002). In Indonesia, Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren is an economically important pest of structure timber (Dungani and Nandika, 1999). It is also a major pest in oil palm plantations (Nandika, 2014).


Like all foraging insects, termites (isoptera) follow a hierarchy of behaviors when searching for food (Matthews and Matthews, 1978). Initially, an termite searches the appropriate habitat in which to locate food. The termites search within it for potential resources. When a nutritional resource is located, it must be examined and recognized as potentially edible. Finally, the food must be accepted and consumed. Primary reproductives choose the initial nesting site at the culmination of the nuptial flight. The foraging area for the colony is established based on the nest location, although the search for food may extend out many meters from that center with made exploratory tunnels (Su et al., 1993).


For subterranean termites, the second stage of foraging, the search for food within the patch consists of exploratory tunneling around foci of the nest complex (Reinhard et al., 1997). Food resources, once located, then are examined (Hedlund and Henderson, 1999Campora and Grace, 2001). If the food is accepted and consumed, the forager lays a pheromone trail back to the nest. A primary gallery then is constructed around this recruitment trail (Reinhard et al., 1997).
Fig. 2:Subterranean termite attacking strategy on buildings
If food is located an expanded gallery or ‘primary tunnel’ is constructed along the recruitment trail that called exploratory tunnels (Fig. 2). After the food is depleted, exploration of the environment begins again with the current food resource as the new center of activity (Reinhard et al., 1997Campora and Grace, 2001Puche and Su, 2001). Campora and Grace (2001) found that the likelihood of a food resource being discovered is a function of its proximity to previously exploited resources.


EXISTING OF SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES CONTROL
A number of control measures are used to prevent termite attack on buildings. These are physical, chemical and biological. The generally accepted method of termite control over the years has been chemical pesticides. Much of the research into the specifics to suppress termite populations with baits e.g., use of toxic baits (Su, 2002), barrier technology with inert gravel/granitegard (Su et al., 2004), stainless steel mesh (Termimesh) (Wege et al., 2003).


There are a number of alternatives to using chemical pesticides for termite control. Research on termiticides for termite control was reported by Scheffrahn and co-workers in the early 1950s (Scheffrahn et al., 1997). In their report mention that, these termiticides are typically applied to soil beneath or surrounding building foundations to protect structure from subterranean termites. However, nearly four decades, treatment of soil with termiticides has been the conventional technique for control of termites. Since 1952, the soil termiticide injection originally contain two cyclodienes (chlordane and heptachlor). According to Su and Scheffrahn (1990), the termiticides contain the active ingredients, such as bifenthrin, chlorfenapyr, permethrin, cypermethrin, imidacloprid and fipronil. The chemicals spinosad, Disodium Octaborate Tetrahydrate (DOT), calcium arsenate and chlorpyriphos, have been also used for this purpose. It will probably become less acceptable to spray a large quantity of insecticide in soil to protect a house from subterranean termites and need to use less pesticide for future technologies, no pesticide at all or controlled-release pesticide barriers (i.e., insecticide-impregnated polymer). Future trends of termite control technology is less pesticide and no pesticide.


Subterranean termite control by baiting system have recently gained popularity. The principle of termite baiting system is the active ingredient introduced into a station and termites locate a station and begin to feed. This efforts can reduce environmental contamination from pesticide exposure (Potter et al., 2001Verkerk and Bravery, 2001). The active ingredient of chitin synthesis inhibitors causes metabolic disorders molting to termites, so it can not form a chitin and then death. The first formula used is diflubenzuron and triflumuron (Su et al., 19821987). Subsequently, it was discovered a new formula is hexafumuron, which is a benzoylphenyl urea groups (Su, 1994Su et al., 1998). Diba and Nandika (2009) states that the termite Coptotermes curvignthus who has eaten hexaflumuron for one week, experience morphological changes, especially in the integument. Integument pucker caused by dehydration in termites. However, the results of recent research shows that not all species of termites can be controlled by those active ingredients that has been commercially available, it is due to the different types of molting among species. Amran et al. (2014) suggest that the active ingredient fipronil can control the termites of family Termitidae effectively, the researchers tested it on Macrotermes gilvus Hagen.
The physical barriers can be used most effectively as continuous horizontal barriers during pre-construction installation. This method using the principle that termites cannot tunnel through a layer of moist or dry sand 1.2-1.7 mm in size (Ebeling and Forbes 1988). Su et al. (1992)found that single-sized particle barriers 2.00-2.80 mm effective in structure protection. Lenz and Runko (1994) found that a fine mesh of high-grade stainless steel, installed during construction as a continuous horizontal barrier, withstood foraging by several termite species. According to O’Toole et al. (2003), the Termi-Mesh (one type of physical barriers), is a fine stainless steel mesh (Termi-Mesh Australia Pty Ltd, Malaga, WA, Australia) with mesh holes 0.66×0.45 mm that are too small for termites to pass through.


The biological control have several potentials and distinct advantages over other forms of control in that high degree of safety among vertebrates and other non-target organisms and reduce or eliminate the use of chemicals around a structure that is needing treatment (Kaya and Gaugler, 1993). With the general public becoming increasingly concerned about pesticide usage, the use of bio-control for termite control is a potentially promising market. However, the control of termites with the entomopathogenic micro-organisms is not field proven, only based on laboratory studies with limited numbers of termites in a restrictive environment. Furthermore, Lacey et al. (2001) suggested that the termites species and the environment can significantly limit the success of pathogens.


Since known as very dangerous pest, an effort to control termites will always go on, especially using microbial insecticide. Neves and Alves (2004) stated that using microbial insecticide for controlling termites has several advantages such as has relative low cost, have many strains and can be germinate strain in vitroMilner and Staples (1996) suggested that using microbial insecticide in controlling termites besides has relative low cost, those agents relative have no negative effect for human and environment. Currently, the microbial insecticide used for termites control in the world is primarily fungi.
The ability of fungi for controlling termites according by Grace et al. (1992) supported by the characteristics of fungi that have properties similar to a slow-acting chemicals. This is reinforced by the ability to replicate itself and fungal spores can be spread with the help of the social behavior of termites in the form of trophallaxis. Milner et al. (1996) review a wide variety of fungal pathogens that been reported as potential pathogens to termites. They reported several genera entomopathogenic fungi as potential pathogenic agents in controlling termites and among all of entomopathogenic genus, Metarhizium is one of entomopathogenic fungi that very potential in controlling termites especially Metarhizium anisopliae and Metarhizium brunneumDesyanti et al. (2011) have collected the entomopathogenic fungus from varied source or host in Indonesia, the result of screening test for termite control, eight species effective as candidate of bio-termiticides, namely Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch), Metarhizium sp., Myrothecium roridumBeauveria bassiana (Bals.), Aspergillus flavus (Link), Aspergillus nigerAspergillus sp., Rhizopus sp., Acremonium sp. and Penicillium sp.


Nematodes are obligate insect parasites are widely used in bio-control for termite control besides the entomopathogenic fungus. Few researcher, such as Trudeau (1989)Mauldin and Beal (1989) and Lenz et al. (2000) reported that termite susceptibility to entomopathogenic nematodes in the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae varies and is influenced by nematode species. Gaugler (1988) reported the differences in efficacy between Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes depending on the host infected.


CONCLUSION
The subterranean termite, Coptotermes spp., is a pest of major economic importance in Asian countries (tropical and subtropical region). This subterranean termite colonies can cause hundred millions or even billions of dollars worth of damage each year. The extensive damage caused by Coptotermes sp., colonies cannot be attributed to individuals within the colony consuming a greater amount of wood than those of native subterranean termite species. This termite is a cryptic insects that resides underground, inside trees and remain hidden within walls of buildings. Efforts of prevention and control of subterranean termites (Coptotermes sp.) are generally performed using a liquid termiticide as chemical barriers in the soil, physical barriers and termite bait strategies. In general, control of subterranean termites in Asian countries rely heavily on the use of liquid termiticides. It is used in the soil both as repellent or non-repellent. The bio-control of termites with the fungi or nematodes are still tentative for application in the field. Successful control of subterranean termites starts with the detection, proper identification of species of termites and an understanding of the problem.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thanks to the Ministry of Religious Affairs, Republic of Indonesia for their financial support by providing the scholarship study No. Dj.I/Dt.I.IV/3/HN.01/1182/2010.
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