EPIPHYTE

An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it. Epiphytes differ from parasites in that epiphytes grow on other plants for physical support and do not necessarily negatively affect the host. An epiphytic organism that is not a plant is called an epibiont. Epiphytes are usually found in the temperate zone (e.g., many mosses, liverworts, lichens, and algae) or in the tropics (e.g., many ferns, cacti, orchids, and bromeliads. Many houseplants are epiphyte species due to their minimal water and soil requirements. Epiphytes provide a rich and diverse habitat for other organisms including animals, fungi, bacteria, and myxomycetes.

Near Orosí, Costa Rica

Epiphyte is one of the subdivisions of the Raunkiær system.

The term epiphytic derives from the Greek epi- (meaning 'upon') and phyton (meaning 'plant'). Epiphytic plants are sometimes called "air plants" because they do not root in soil. However, there are many aquatic species of algae, including seaweeds, that are epiphytes on other aquatic plants (seaweeds or aquatic angiosperms).

A clinging root of an orchid.

Biodiversity

The best-known epiphytic plants include mosses, orchids, and bromeliads such as Spanish moss (of the genus Tillandsia), but epiphytes may be found in every major group of the plant kingdom. 89% of epiphyte species (about 24,000) are flowering plants. The second largest group are the leptosporangiate ferns, with about 2800 species (10% of epiphytes). In fact, about one third of all ferns are epiphytes. The third largest group is clubmosses, with 190 species, followed by a handful of species in each of the spikemosses, other ferns, Gnetales, and cycads.

An epiphytic bromeliad

Physiognomy

Epiphytic organisms usually derive only physical support and not nutrition from their host, though they may sometimes damage the host. Parasitic and semiparasitic plants growing on other plants (mistletoe is well known) are not "true" epiphytes (a designation usually given to fully autotrophic epiphytes), but are still epiphytic in habit. Plants such as New Zealand species of Griselinia which send long roots down towards the soil while fixed high in another plant and reliant upon it for physical support – are also epiphytic in habit.

Epiphytes on a tree near Santa Elena, Costa Rica.

Some epiphytic plants are large trees that begin their lives high in the forest canopy. Over decades they send roots down the trunk of a host tree eventually overpowering and replacing it. The strangler fig and the northern rātā (Metrosideros robusta) of New Zealand are examples of this. Epiphytes that end up as free standing trees are also called hemiepiphytes.

Nutritions

Epiphytic plants use photosynthesis for energy and (where non-aquatic) obtain moisture from the air or from dampness (rain and cloud moisture) on the surface of their hosts. Roots may develop primarily for attachment, and specialized structures (for example, cups and scales) may be used to collect or hold moisture.

Epiphytes on electric wires. This kind of plant takes both CO₂ and water from the atmosphere for living and growing

Ecology

The first important monograph on epiphytic plant ecology was written by A.F.W. Schimper (Die epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas, 1888). Assemblages of large epiphytes occur most abundantly in moist tropical forests, but mosses and lichens occur as epiphytes in almost all biomes. In Europe there are no dedicated epiphytic plants using roots, but rich assemblages of mosses and lichens grow on trees in damp areas (mainly the western coastal fringe), and the common polypody fern grows epiphytically along branches. Rarely, grass, small bushes or small trees may grow in suspended soils up trees (typically in a rot-hole).

Epiphytic plants attached to their hosts high in the canopy have an advantage over herbs restricted to the ground where there is less light and herbivores may be more active. Epiphytic plants are also important to certain animals that may live in their water reservoirs, such as some types of frogs and arthropods.

Epiphytes can have a significant effect on the microenvironment of their host, and of ecosystems where they are abundant, as they hold water in the canopy and decrease water input to the soil. The epiphytes create a significantly cooler and moister environment in the host plant canopy, potentially greatly reducing water loss by the host through transpiration.

References

1. ^ Hickey, M.; King, C. (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms. Cambridge University Press.
2. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. (1976). Vol. I, p. 764. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Chicago.
3. ^ Sydney E. Everhart, Joseph S. Ely, and Harold W. Keller (2009). "Evaluation of tree canopy epiphytes and bark characteristics associated with the presence of corticolous myxomycetes". (PDF). Botany 87: 509–517. doi:10.1139/b09-027.
4. ^ Hogan, C Michael, 2010. Fern. Encyclopedia of Earth. National council for Science and the Environment. Washington, DC
5. ^ Schuettpelz, Eric (2007), The evolution and diversification of epiphytic ferns (PDF), Duke University PhD thesis
6. ^ Stanton, D.E., Chávez, J.H., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L.O., Horn, H. "Epiphytes Improve Host Plant Water Use by Microenvironment Modification, Functional Ecology (journal), doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.12249.

External Links 

• Epiphytes on a Scot's Pine in Gorbie Glen, Scotland.

- Wikipedia 

TERRESTRIAL PLANT

A terrestrial plant is a plant that grows on or in or from land. Other types of plants are aquatic (living in water), epiphytic (living on trees) and lithophytic (living in or on rocks).

Terrestrial plants

Aquatic Plants

The distinction between an aquatic plant and a terrestrial plant is often blurred because of the tendency for many aquatic species to have both submersed and emersed forms and because many terrestrial plants are able to tolerate periodic submersion. There are relatively few obligate submersed aquatic plants, (i.e. species that cannot tolerate emersion for even relatively short periods) but some examples include members of Hydrocharitaceae and Cabombaceae, Ceratophyllum, and Aldrovanda and most macroalgae (e.g. Chara and Nitella). Most aquatic plants can, or prefer to, grow in the emersed form, and most only flower in that form. Many terrestrial plants can tolerate extended periods of inundation, and this is often part of the natural habitat of the plant where flooding is common. These plants (termed helophytes) tolerate extended periods of waterlogging around the roots and even complete submersion under flood waters. Growth rates of helophytes decrease significantly during these periods of complete submersion and if water levels do not recede the plant will ultimately decline and perish.

References

^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrestrial.

- Wikipedia 

RESIN

In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a "solid or highly viscous substance," which are typically convertible into polymers. Such viscous substances can be plant-derived or synthetic in origin. They are often mixtures of organic compounds.

Cedar of Lebanon cone showing flecks of resin as used in the mummification of Egyptian Pharaohs.

Examples of Natural Resins and Related Materials

Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits. They confound a wide range of herbivores, insects, and pathogens; while the volatile phenolic compounds may attract benefactors such as parasitoids or predators of the herbivores that attack the plant.

Insect trapped in resin

Resins

The resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. The most common terpenes in resin are the bicyclic terpenes alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, delta-3 carene and sabinene the monocyclic terpenes limonene and terpinolene, and smaller amounts of the tricyclic sesquiterpenes, longifolene, caryophyllene and delta-cadinene. Some resins also contain a high proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated by fractional distillation. Rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of diterpenes.

Notable examples of plant resins include amber, Balm of Gilead, balsam, Canada balsam, Boswellia, copal from trees of Protium copal and Hymenaea courbaril, dammar gum from trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae, Dragon's blood from the dragon trees (Dracaena species), elemi, frankincense from Boswellia sacra, galbanum from Ferula, gummosa, gum guaiacum from the lignum vitae trees of the genus Guaiacum, kauri gum from trees of Agathis australis, labdanum from mediterranean species of Cistus, mastic (plant resin) from the mastic tree Pistacia lentiscus, myrrh from shrubs of Commiphora, sandarac resin from Tetraclinis articulata, the national tree of Malta, styrax (a Benzoin resin from various Styrax Species), Spinifex resin from Australian Spinifex grasses, and turpentine,  distilled from pine resin. Amber is fossil resin (also called resinite) from coniferous and other tree species. Copal, kauri gum, dammar and other resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such as acetone or chloroform is placed on it.

Fossils Resins

Certain resins are obtained in a fossilized condition, amber being the most notable instance of this class. African copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil condition.

Rosin

Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin. Typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, and burns with a bright but smoky flame.

Extremely viscous resin extruding from the trunk of a mature Araucaria columnaris.

Rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and derive from them through partial oxidation. Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid (sylvic acid), C₂₀H₃₀O₂, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C₂₀H₃₀O₂, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol; it crystallizes in leaflets, and on oxidation yields trimellitic acid, isophthalic acid, and terebic acid. Pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum; it has been supposed to consist of three isomers.

Rosin is a solid resin obtained from pines and some other plants, mostly conifers produced by heating fresh liquid resin to vaporize the volatile liquid (terpene) components. Plant resins are generally produced as stem secretions, but in some Central and South American species such as Euphorbia dalechampia and Clusia species they are produced as pollination rewards, and used by some stingless bee species to construct their nests. Propolis,consisting largely of resins collected from plants such as poplars and conifers,is used by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives.

Petroleum and Insect Derived-Resins

Shellac and lacquer are examples of insect-derived resins.

Asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it was ultimately derived from plants.

History and Etymology

Plant resins have a very long history that was documented in ancient Greece by Theophrastus in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder, and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized in ancient Egypt. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in some religious rites.

The word resin comes from French resine, from Latin resina "resin", which either derives from or is a cognate of the Greek ῥητίνη rhētinē "resin of the pine", of unknown earlier origin, though probably non-Indo-European. 

The word "resin" has been applied in the modern world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish. An example is nail polish. Certain "casting resins" and synthetic resins (such as epoxy resin) have also been given the name "resin."

Some resins when soft are known as 'oleoresins', and when containing benzoic acid or cinnamic acid they are called balsams. Oleoresins are naturally occurring mixtures of an oil and a resin; they can be extracted from various plants. Other resinous products in their natural condition are a mix with gum or mucilaginous substances and known as gum resins. Several natural resins are used as ingredients in perfumes, e.g., balsams of Peru and tolu, elemi, styrax, and certain turpentines.

Non-Resinous Exudates

Other liquid compounds found inside plants or exuded by plants, such as sap, latex or mucilage are sometimes confused with resin, but are not the same. Saps, in particular, serve a nutritive function that resins do not.

Resin of a pine

Uses
Plant Resin

Plant resins are valued for the production of varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents. They are also prized as raw materials for the synthesis of other organic compounds and provide constituents of incense and perfume.

Lumps of dried frankincense resin

The hard transparent resins, such as the copals, dammars, mastic, and sandarac, are principally used for varnishes and adhesives, while the softer odoriferous oleo-resins (frankincense, elemi, turpentine, copaiba),  and gum resins containing essential oils (ammoniacum, asafoetida, gamboge, myrrh and scammony) are more used for therapeutic purposes and incense. The resin of the Aleppo Pine is used to flavour retsina, a Greek resinated wine.

Synthetic Resins

Many materials are produced via the conversion of synthetic resins to solids. Important examples are bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, which is a resin converted to epoxy glue upon the addition of a hardnener. Silicones are often prepared from silicone resins via room temperature vulcanization.

References

1. ^ http://goldbook.iupac.org/RT07166.html. 
2. ^ "Plant Resins: Chemistry, evolution, ecology, and ethnobotany", by Jean Langenheim, Timber Press, Portland, OR. 2003
3. ^ David Grimaldi, Amber: Window to the Past, 1996, p 16-20, American Museum of Natural History
4. ^ ^a b Fiebach, Klemens; Grimm, Dieter (2000). "Resins, Natural". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_073 ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
5. ^ Bittrich, V.; Amaral, Maria C. E. (1996). "Flower morphology and pollination biology of some Clusia species from the Gran Sabana (Venezuela)". Kew Bulletin 51 (4): 681–694. doi:10.2307/4119722.
6. ^ Gonçalves-Alvim, Silmary de Jesus (2001). "Resin-collecting bees (Apidae) on Clusia palmicida (Clusiaceae) in a riparian forest in Brazil". Journal of Tropical Ecology 17 (1): 149–153. doi:10.1017/s0266467401001092.
7. ^ Simone-Finstrom, M.; Spivak, M. (2010). "Propolis and bee health: The natural history and significance of resin use by honey bees". Apidologie 41 (3): 295–311. doi:10.1051/apido/2010016.
8. ^ "Queen Hatshepsut's expedition to the Land of Punt: The first oceanographic cruise?".  Dept. of Oceanography, Texas A&M University. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
9. ^ "resin, n. and adj.". OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
10. ^ "resin (n.)".  Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
11. ^ http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0453e/x0453e10.html.

- Wikipedia 

Five Reasons People Become Vegetarian

Vegetarians make up approximately 2.5 percent of the U.S. population, according to Colorado State University Extension. The reasons people choose to follow a vegetarian diet vary as much as styles of vegetarianism. You may choose to ban all or only some foods of animal origin from your diet, depending on the type of vegetarian you are. Vegans eat only plant foods, while lacto-ovo-vegetarians eat plant foods, eggs and dairy products. Pesco-pollo vegetarians eat seafood and chicken, but shun all other meats, including lamb, beef and pork.

Opposition to the inhumane treatment of animals is one reason for vegetarianism. Photo Credit studiodr/iStock/Getty Images

Health

You might choose to follow a vegetarian diet because you believe it will improve your health. Diets rich in plant foods, such as grains, beans, fruits and vegetables, reduce the risk of many chronic diseases. Animal products, especially fatty cuts of meat and full-fat dairy products, are linked to clogged arteries, heart disease, stroke and certain cancers, according to the Center for Science in the Public Interest. Vegetarians, especially vegans, must be very careful to avoid dangerous deficiencies by planning a diet that includes all the necessary nutrients.

Ethics

Concern for the welfare of animals is a reason some people choose vegetarianism. Nonviolence, a reverence for all life or an opposition to killing animals for food are some ethical positions that support a vegetarian diet. You might choose a meat-free diet if you're opposed to factory farms, the large-scale operations that produce most of the pork, beef, chicken, veal and eggs eaten in America. Opposition to factory farming is growing, says a 2010 New York Times article. Many animals are kept in cages so small they can't move, turn around or even lie down, and chickens are packed together into small cages stacked one on top of another.

Religion

Practicing a religion that advocates vegetarianism is a reason some people follow a vegetarian diet. The Hindu religion considers the cow sacred, and most of its followers do not eat meat. Ghandi, a Hindu vegetarian, declared that the greatness of a nation could be measured by the way in which it treats its animals. The Jains believe it is wrong to kill any living being. Seventh-Day Adventists follow a vegetarian diet that allows milk and eggs, but not meat, due to the belief that whatever they eat should preserve the health of the body, mind and spirit. Their diet is credited with their 50 percent lower risk of heart disease, diabetes and certain cancers, according to Nutrition411.com, a website for health care professionals.

Economics

Some people are vegetarians because they simply can't afford meat. Animal products are expensive compared with foods of plant origin. It takes many pounds of grains to produce a pound of meat, and factory farming requires the use of pesticides, antibiotics and the use of computer-controlled feeding, lighting and air circulation. Beans are also a high-protein food, and they cost much less to produce than meat does.

Family and Friends

The influence of family, friends and even famous role models and celebrities is a reason people adhere to a vegetarian diet. The Vegetarian Resource Group notes that famous vegetarians include Leonardo Da Vinci, "Mr. Rogers," the author Leo Tolstoy, Albert Einstein, Plato, Pythagoras, singer K.D. Lang and Sylvester Graham, the inventor of the graham cracker.

www.livestrong.com

How to Get Omega 3 Without Fish Oil

Omega-3 fatty acids are a healthy type of fat that is found in a variety of foods. Some people choose to supplement omega-3 fatty acids by taking fish oils as well. The reason that omega-3 fatty acids have become so popular in recent years is that they provide a plethora of nutritional benefits. The Mayo Clinic explains that omega-3 fatty acids, which contain the compounds DHA and EPA, can reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes. They can also reduce high blood pressure and lower triglyceride levels in the body. Taking a fish oil supplement is not necessary to get omega-3 fatty acids, since it is found in foods that you can eat every day.

An assortment of nuts. Photo Credit conejota/iStock/Getty Images

Step 1

Eat walnuts for an afternoon snack every day. The World's Healthiest Foods website states that walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, with about 2.3 grams or 50 percent of an adult's daily recommended intake of omega-3 fatty acids per quarter cup. It is important not to over-eat nuts, since they are high in calories. Yet, eating a handful or a quarter of a cup of walnuts a day is a good way to boost your omega-3 fatty acid intake. Try measuring walnuts ahead of time and putting them into individual baggies so you have them with you in the car or at work.

Step 2

Another good source of omega-3 fatty acids is olive oil, states the Mayo Clinic. Use olive oil when using cooking methods like stir-frying and sautéing foods. Just like nuts, it is important not to over-use olive oil, since it is dense in calories. Yet, if you already use butter or a different type of oil in cooking, replacing it with olive oil will add minimal calories while increasing your omega-3 fatty acid intake.

Step 3

Stir in crushed flax seeds into your yogurt or oatmeal a few times a week. Flax seeds are small, crunchy seeds that are full of omega-3 fatty acids. They can be purchased in almost any health food store. When eaten alone, they taste nutty, but when used in other foods like yogurt or oatmeal, they are practically tasteless. If you prefer, you can also blend the seeds into smoothies a few mornings each week.

Step 4

Replace a dinner containing meat once a week with a meal that has fish or shellfish. The World's Healthiest Foods website states that there are about 2.1 g of omega-3 fatty acids in 4 ounces of salmon and 1.1 g in 4 ounces of scallops. Meats like beef and chicken do not contain omega-3 fatty acids. Make a habit of trying "Meatless Mondays" using seafood to replace land meats.

Things You'll Need

• Nuts like Walnuts
• Olive Oil
• Flax Seeds
• Fatty Fish like Salmon
• Shellfish

www.livestrong.com

Should You Take Iron With Vitamin C?

Iron's main role in the body is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide through the blood. Vitamin C is necessary for growth and repair in your body, and it increases iron absorption. Most people get enough vitamin C from their diet, so taking a vitamin C supplement may not be necessary. If you're at risk of iron deficiency, increasing your intake of iron should be a priority, but consuming vitamin C with iron supplements helps. Children and pregnant women have a high chance of being iron deficient. You also need more iron if you have heavy periods or donate blood frequently.

Combine foods with vitamin C at the same meal to improve iron absorption. Photo Credit Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Getty Images

Vitamin C Improves Iron Absorption

According to a report published in the "International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research" in 2004, vitamin C enhances absorption of iron. Some food contains compounds that inhibit iron absorption, and including vitamin C during these meals helps counteract the inhibiting effect. You must consume vitamin C during at the same time for it to help absorb iron. It doesn't make a difference whether the vitamin C is a supplement (ascorbic acid) or in food. On the other hand, a component in black and pekoe tea binds with iron and reduces the amount your body can absorb, so it's best to avoid drinking tea with your iron supplement.

Getting Enough Iron from Foods

The U.S. National Library of Medicine lists eggs, iron-fortified cereals, beef, liver, oysters, salmon and tuna as some of the best food sources of iron. According to the USDA, pork, clams and oysters contain the highest levels of iron, each containing 7.4 milligrams of iron or more in every 3-ounce serving. Iron in fruits, vegetables, grains and iron supplements is harder to absorb than iron in meat, so supplementing with vitamin C when eating those foods would improve absorption. Keep in mind that men need 8 milligrams of iron daily. Women age 50 and under require 18 milligrams a day and 27 milligrams during pregnancy, while women age 51-plus only require 8 milligrams daily.

Getting Your Vitamin C

Vitamin C deficiency can result in iron deficiency, due to reduced iron absorption. The recommended dietary allowance of vitamin C is 90 milligrams daily for men and 75 milligrams for women. All fruits and vegetables are sources of vitamin C. Some of the most potent fruit sources include citrus, cantaloupe, kiwi, mangoes, papayas, pineapples, watermelons and berries. Vegetables with a high vitamin C content include green vegetables, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, red bell peppers and winter squash.

Safety with Taking Supplements

Consult with your doctor before taking any supplements if you're on medication or have a medical condition. Diarrhea and constipation are common side effects of iron supplements. If you take higher doses, nausea and vomiting are potential side effects. Most iron supplements contain 325 milligrams of iron. If you take too much iron, serious side effects can occur. Don't drink milk, take calcium supplements or antacids at the same time you take an iron supplement. To avoid upset stomach and diarrhea, don't take more than 2,000 milligrams of vitamin C supplements in a day. Vitamin C supplements interact with many common medications, such as birth control pills, aspirin, acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

www.livestrong.com

How to Add Protein to Salads for Vegetarians

The protein choices for your salad depend upon which of the four types of vegetarian diets you follow. The vegan diet allows you to eat only plant-based protein. Lacto-vegetarians plan their meals by incorporating plant-based foods and some dairy products. If you follow the lacto-ovo vegetarian diet, you can add protein from plants, eggs and dairy products, while semi-vegetarians can add protein from plants, dairy products, eggs, fish and chicken.

Seeds and nuts add protein and flavor to your salads. Photo Credit Creatas Images/Creatas/Getty Images

Daily Protein Intake for Vegetarians

The U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends that vegetarians eat 5.5 ounces of protein daily when following a 2,000-calorie-per-day diet. Incorporate a combination of beans, peas, soy, nuts and seeds into your meal plans. If your vegetarian diet allows eggs, dairy, seafood or chicken, your meals should include an assortment of these proteins. The American Diabetes Association recommends adding a variety of plant protein sources to your vegetarian diet for healthy muscle growth and a strong immune system.

Nutty for Nuts

Packed with protein, nuts are acceptable for any of the vegetarian diets. Adding 1/4 cup of almonds to your salad provides 8 grams of protein to your diet. Try mixing a variety of nuts, such as peanuts, cashews, pecans and pistachios. Pecans have the lowest amount of protein with 2.5 grams per 1/4 cup, while peanuts provide 9 grams per 1/4 cup. One-quarter cup of cashews adds 5 grams of protein to your salad. Other protein-rich nuts include walnuts, hazelnuts, Brazil nuts and pine nuts.

Seeds Aren't Just for the Birds

Seeds not only add protein to salads but also a burst of flavor. All vegetarian diets allow seeds as a source of protein. Pumpkin seeds and flax seeds provide the most protein with 8 grams per 1/4 cup. Sprinkle 1 tablespoon of sesame seeds on top of your salad for about 2 grams of protein, and 1 ounce of sunflower seeds gives you about 6 grams of protein.

Plenty of Beans for Protein

Most beans offer you 7 to 10 grams of protein in a 1/2 cup serving. These beans include pinto, kidney, black, navy pea, lentils and lima beans. Soy beans are high in protein with 14 grams per 1/2 cup serving. Dry beans do take a while to prepare, so you can cook up a batch ahead of time and use them during the week for your salads. Canned beans are convenient, save time and still give you the daily protein you need.

Eggs and Cheese

If you follow a semi-vegetarian or lacto-ovo vegetarian diet, you can add hard-boiled eggs sliced or crumbled up to your salad. One whole egg provides 6.3 grams of protein. The egg white has 3.6 grams, and the yolk contains 2.7 grams. According to Harvard University School of Public Health, eating one egg per day is nutritious and does not raise the risk of heart disease in healthy people. Lacto-vegetarians also have the option of adding any type of cheese cubes or shredded cheese to their salad. One ounce of cheese can provide from 4 to 7 grams of protein, depending upon the type.

www.livestrong.com

SLAUGHTER TAPPING

Slaughter tapping is an obsolete method of extracting large quantities of natural latex from rubber trees in a forest environment. Prior to commercial exploitation of latex-bearing trees such as Hevea brasiliensis in the Amazon Basin and Funtumia elastica in the Congo, native populations limited harvesting to non-lethal tapping of the latex. However, with the rising demand for rubber worldwide in the late nineteenth century, debt-slave "hunters" began tapping more intensively, using ladders to extract as much latex as possible from all areas of the tree, killing the tree as a result. This "slaughter tapping" resulted in the destruction of all latex-bearing trees across large swathes of sub-Saharan Africa and South America. Eventually, the establishment of rubber plantations in the Far East Made "hunting" of naturally occurring rubber trees unprofitable, and the practice largely ceased in the early twentieth century.

References

• Hobhouse, Henry (2003, 2005). Seeds of Wealth: Five Plants That Made Men Rich. Shoemaker & Hoard. pp. 141–142. ISBN 1-59376-089-2.

- Wikipedia