Author
Wanida Subsansenee
Non-Wood Forest Products Sub-Division
Forest Products Research Division
Royal Forest Department
FAO Report, 26 June 2016 Saturday
Because of the diversified nature of NWFPs, it is difficult to assess their value. Uses of NWFPs in rural communities differ greatly from one area to another. NWFPs are normally used for subsistence purposes, but some are also traded. Requests to RFD for NWFP harvesting permits are few in number and are considered unnecessary by local users. Thus, accurate data on NWFPs are difficult to maintain.
Important Thai NWFPs in the international market are shown in Table 1. These include rattan, bamboo, lac, honey, gum, resins and bark. Other NWFPs utilized for food, spices, medicinal plants, and orchids will not be elaborated on in this paper as many of them are now cultivated plants.
Rattan
There are 6 genera and 55 species of rattan in Thailand, the most important being Calamus, Korthalsia, Daemonorops, Plectocomia, Myrialepsis and Plectocomiopsis. Rattan is found from sea level up to 3,000 meters. In Thailand most rattans are found in the south, north and central parts of the country. They grow in swamp, evergreen, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests.
Rattan has been used for centuries in Thailand. It is used for:
Rattan furniture is currently very popular in a number of international markets and has a promising future. The most important large cane species in Thailand used for furniture (Vongkaluang, 1986) are kampuan (C. longisetus), namphung (C. sp.), keesean (C. rudentum), kordam (C. manan), and nguay (C. peregrinus).
The most important small rattans are takathong (C. caesuis), keephung (C. blumei), lek (C. pandanosmus), and keereh (C. densiflorus).
Rattan harvesting. In the past, all rattans except C. caecuis were unprotected NWFPs. People could collect without permits (except in reserved forests). In 1988, however, all rattan was classified as a protected NWFP because of overexploitation. Permits are now required from the Forest Department for harvesting quantities exceeding 10 kilograms. Enforcement of this regulation is weak, resulting in illegal harvesting in most areas. Accurate production records are not available. Legal harvests are given in Table 2, but these levels are believed to vastly underestimate actual harvests.
Table 1. Non-wood forest products exports from Thailand, 1979-1988 (million baht)
Table 2. Legal rattan cutting in Thailand
Exports and imports. Thailand imports a large volume of raw rattan from Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Malaysia and others. As rattan furniture for export has grown in popularity, the quantity of raw rattan imported has increased rapidly (Table 3). In 1967, the quantity imported was 64.2 tons, valued at Bt618,300. By 1988, the quantity imported had grown to 29,339 tons, valued at Bt224 million. These figures indicate that a great quantity of rattan was imported to serve the increasing demand of the rattan furniture industry.
Very little raw rattan is exported from Thailand. The largest quantify was in 1977: 436.7 tons valued at Bt729,500. The export of raw rattan was banned in 1978.
Collection and processing. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has established temporary regulations for harvesting. When better data and information on growth rates and cutting regimes becomes available, these regulations may be revised. The current regulations direct collectors to:
Rattan canes are easily recognized as being mature when the leaf sheath has fallen. The best time for cutting rattan is from November to March. Sometimes peeling and splitting of cane is done in the field with ordinary knoves prior to transporting to the factory. In the factory, peeling and splitting of cane are done by machine.
Table 3. Exports and imports of raw rattan and furniture, Thailand
After harvesting, there are many methods of treatment including:
Recommendations. Rattan production in Thailand comes almost entirely from the wild and is insufficient to meet the demands of the rattan industry. Rattan harvesting permits have decreased rapidly as diminishing forest resources and uncontrolled exploitation have seriously depleted the stock of wild rattan.
Plantations of rattan are not yet well established. It is necessary to find appropriate methods for the successful establishment of rattan plantations, and to find appropriate technologies for harvesting, post-harvest, and pre-factory treatment.
Bamboo
Bamboo is found throughout Thailand, mostly in mixed deciduous forests. It covers about 810,000 hectares (5.5 percent of the forest area). Thirteen genera, with more them 60 species, are found in Thailand, including Arundiaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Mclocalamus, melocanna, Neohouzeaua, Pseudosasa, Schizostachyum, Teinostachyum and Thyrsostachys.
Bamboo has many uses. The culms are used for house construction, scaffolding, props, ladders, fencing, containers, pipes, toys, musical instruments, furniture, wicker work, partitions, house walls, fuel and raw material for pulp and paper making. Shoots are a popular food, Used in fresh and preserved foods. Bamboo serves as fencing, windbreaks, and to prevent river bank erosion. The best known species are Thyrsostachys siamensis and Dendrocalamus asper. Thyrsostachys siamensis is mostly collected from natural forests. The species is tolerant of drought and saline soil. It was the primary raw material for pulp and paper making in Thailand from 1939 to 1984. Each year, over 5 million culms were required for the pulp and paper industry. Owing to the strong demand for bamboo stalks, this species is diminishing.
Dendrocalamus asper is a favourite species for bamboo plantations. The advantages of their species are simple propagation requirements, a short cutting cycle, and high yields of quality young shoots. The culms are suitable for building materials and toothpicks.
Bamboo harvesting. The culms removed from forest under RFD permits are showed in Table 4.
Table 4. Official records of bamboo culms removed from natural forests in Thailand
The annual demand for bamboo is much greater than the volumes indicated in Table 4, so these data should be considered only a potential indication of harvest levels. Some bamboo species are not on the protected list and are therefore not reflected in RFD statistics. Official bamboo harvest levels peaked in 1988 at 18.9 million culms, valued at Bt 339.6 million.
Exports and imports. Table 5 shows the total quantities and value of bamboo exports and imports, including, bamboo stalks, bamboo shoots, bamboo poles, and toothpicks. Dried bamboo shoots are the main import item.
Table 5. Exports and imports of bamboo and bamboo products
Collection and processing. Bamboo harvesting is carried out by selective cutting. The one-year old culms should not be harvested in order to maintain growth. Cutting is generally done by using a small axe, machete, bill hook or saw.
The first harvest is between the third and fifth year of growth. There are up to 5 shoots from each culm in the first and second year. Mature culms are at the center of each clump, and are surrounded by up to 5 new shoots each year. The 2-to 3-year old clumps are cut for bamboo stalks, poles, construction work and wicker work. The clumps should be cut at the bottom close to the ground. Quality decreases if over-aged clumps are left uncut. These. clumps become brittle while the immature ones are not durable. Cutting is easier from November through March. Studies have indicated the suitability of a 3-year cutting cycle for Thysostachys siamensis in natural forests conditions. Consecutive cuttings 3 years apart each yielded more than 10,000 culms per hectare with no reduction in stem quality (Suwannopinan, et al, 1982).
De-branching of the culms is done immediately after cutting. The culms are then cut to the desired length. Bundling may or may not be done before the poles are transported to the roadsite or the yard.
It is important to keep the poles free from insect infestation and deterioration. The general practice are:
Shoot processing includes:
Recommendations. The availability and production of local bamboo do not meet the demand. Corrective measures should include:
Lac is an unprotected non-wood forest product. It is the resinous protective secretion of the lac insect, Laccifer lacca, found in India, China, Laos and Burma. The largest lac producing areas are in the North and Northeast. Lac can provide extra income for farmers in rural areas and for the people collecting NWFPs from the forest. Lac is used for various products including:
Exports and imports. The quantity and value of lac exports fluctuates according to the production and the world market price (Table 7). In 1983, lac exports totalled 9,423 tons, valued at Bt279 million. In 1985, the exports were 6,258 tons valued at Bt582 million. Exports decreased in 1988 to only 3,483 tons, valued at Bt122 million. The amount of lac imported is very small.
Collection. Normally there are 2 broods of lac in a year; in May and June, and November and December. However, lac is cropped only once a year, from September to December.
There are a large number of trees and shrubs which are the hosts of lac insect. The major lac host tree in Thailand is the rain tree (Samanea saman). Other suitable lac host trees are Albizzia lucidior, Combretum quadrangerlae, Zyzyphus mauritiana, and Croton arguratus.
Lac host trees should be pruned 1 to 2 years before inoculation. The brood lac to be used for the infection of the new trees should be healthy and uninfected by pests. The brood lac selected should be cut into a length of about 6 inches and tied with string at the end of the twig and covered with a straw basket. Brood lac should be tied to the tree, vertically or as near as possible to the branch to which the young are to settle.
Brood lac should be left on the branch about 1 week, then moved to another branch. It should be left on the tree no longer than 3 weeks. Care must be taken not to over-infect the host. The lac insect will complete its generation within 6 months. Then the lac can be cropped or left on the tree for self-infection for a second cropping cycle. A 3-year rotation for host trees should be used.
Lac is cropped from trees both for use as brood and for use in industry. The methods of collecting are different.
For use as brood, lac should be left on the tree until the lac are ready to swarm. It is harmful to cut the lac before or after it matures. Premature cutting of the lac is harmful because the females are cut off from their food supply and become weak. Late cutting is also harmful because the young larvae will be lost before the lac is cut. The most appropriate method for cutting brood lac is by examination of the orange yellow spot area of the female lac cell. With the appearance of cracks in the encrustation, the encrustation can be pulled off from the host twig.
Table 6. Stick lac production in Thailand
Table 7. Exports and imports of lac products
Precautions in collection and storage. After lac is cut, it should be scraped from the twigs as soon as possible with sharp knives. To prevent lac from forming blocks it should be spread on a clean floor and air dried away from direct sunlight.
The lac may be spread in layers about 4 inches deep to prevent it from sticking together when freshly cut. Lac may be raked once a day until it is dry, then raked once every 3 to 4 days. If the lac has already formed blocks, they should be broken at once. Blocky lac makes processing difficult and the lac also loses chemical and physical properties, causing its price to decline.
Lac should be stored in a cool and ventilated room, and should be fumigated with carbon bi-sulphide to protect against insect attack. Lac can easily deteriorate if stored improperly.
Seedlac processing. After scraping the lac from the twig, the dust and stick should be collected by hand. Then the sticklac is crushed by a lac crusher, after which it is ready for washing. Crushed lac is placed in a cement tank and washed. Lac can be washed with plain water or soda ash can be added to make it clearer. Then the water containing the lac dye is allowed to run off. This process is repeated three or four times until most of the lac dye has been removed. The material left over is called seedlac. The seedlac is dried on a cement floor.
Shellac processing. Seedlac is converted to shellac by a steaming process. The seedlac is passed through a sieve after melting by a steaming process using 40 to 50 pound per square inch of pressure for 1 1/2 hours. The processed material is called shellac. After the hot shellac tray is removed from the steaming process, the tray is placed in water and the cooled shellac is pulled from the tray.
Flake shellac can be made by heating shellac over a fire (if a yellow colour is desired, it is mixed with yellow arsenic sulphide). Then the molten shellac is transferred through the cooling rollers of a sheeter and passed along a belt conveyer to obtain a sheet of shellac. The shallec is then dried, broken into small chips, and stored in an air-conditioned room at a temperature of 10° to 20°C.
Bleached shellac processing. To produce bleached shellac, seedlac is dissolved in a hot solution of soda ash at a temperature of 70 to 80°C and boiled for about 1 hour. After all the lac is dissolved, the lac solution is filtered through a nylon (cloth to remove the impurities) and allowed to cool. Bleach liquor is added until the lac solution is fairly well bleached. Dilute sulphuric acid is slowly added to the solution until it is neutral. Bleached shellac forms in a fine granular size, then it is filtered through a muslin bag and thoroughly washed in cold water. The precipitated bleached shellac is squeezed out, dried, crushed into powder, and kept in a cool place.
Employment generation. In 1989, the Forest Products Research Division of the Royal Forest Department surveyed the families involved in lac cultivation in Phrae, Lampang, Phayao and Tak Provinces. It was estimated that about 2,100 tons of lac production created jobs for 15,400 families. In 1989/90, the production of 7,250 tons created employment for 53,200 families.
Recommendations. After logging concessions were closed in 1989, rain tree (Samanea saman), the lac host trees, became very popular for wood carving, handicraft manufacture, and furniture. Large trees now sell for Bt 20,000 as timber, and smaller trees sell for Bt 2,000 to Bt 3,000. Because of the resulting harvest of rain tree for other uses, the number of lac host trees has drastically declined. It is necessary to promote rain tree plantations in rural areas, especially in the areas lac had previously been cultivated. Research on lac production in all the aspects should be initiated.
Honey
Honey was previously classified as a protected NWFP but in 1988 it was reclassified as an unprotected NWFP. There are four species of honeybee in Thailand. Three species occur naturally in forests: the giant bee, or rock bee (Apis dorsata); the hive bee (A. cerana); and the little bee (A. florea). A fourth species (A. mellifera) has been introduced for honey production in Thailand. Here are seven commercial products from bees. Honey is the main product. The others are wax, pollen, royal jelly, propolis, venom and bees themselves.
Honey production. The official production and value figures for honey collected from natural forests with RFD permits are given in Table 8. The figures significantly underestimate total production.
No estimates of the amount of honey from beekeeping throughout the country are available. It may be assumed that northern Thailand is the best place for beekeeping.
Table 8. Honey production in forest areas of Thailand
There are about 50,000 hives in the North, and 3,000 to 6,000 hives in the south. It is estimated that 1 hive produces about 40 kilograms of honey. Therefore the honey production from beekeeping could be estimated at about 2,000 tons per annum.
Exports and imports. In 1988, 1,750 tons of honey, worth 24.5 million baht, were exported. The quantity of honey exported increased rapidly between 1987 and 1988 reflecting the considerable promise of honey export markets. Imports decreased from 1,240 tons in 1986 to only 143.2 tons in 1988 as domestic production increased.
Collection and processing. For wild honey, hives are smoked with a torch made of fresh leaves and dry grass until the bees flee from the hive. The honey is then removed from the hive. This method is used for Apis dorsata and A. cerana hives. For A. florea, a cigar is used instead of a torch. The honey is then extracted, filtered and placed in jars. Harvest time is from April to June.
For beekeeping, combs should be removed from the colony to extract the honey. The honey combs are brought into a bee-tight room for uncapping and extracting. The uncapping tool is a sharp knife heated by hot water. The honey is extracted by centrifugal force. The extracted honey is left in a honey storage tank for several days to allow air bubbles, bits of wax, and any fine particles to rise to the top. These are skimmed off before bottling.
Table 9. Exports and imports of honey, 1979-1988
Recommendations. If beekeepers want to achieve the maximum high-quality honey production, they must have information on pollen and nectar sources. It is, therefore, essential to support additional study of the phenology of flowers.
Gums and Resins
Gums and resins are products obtained from the exudation of plants. Resins from different sources show great differences in their chemical composition and properties. The most important resins produced in Thailand are naval stores (oleoresin), used in the paper, rubber, ink, and adhesive industries; and yang oil or "gurjan," produced from the resin of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. and other dipterocarps, which is used for making varnish.
Other gums and resins produced in Thailand include gamboge from Garcinia hanburvi; Chinese lacquer from Melanorrhoea usitata; wall benzoin from Styrax bezoin; gutta percha from Palaguium obovatum Engler; Jelutong from Dyera costulata; and other dipterocarp resins. Gum damar from dipterocarps which can be used for the manufacturing varnish can also be collected in Thailand.
Gum oleoresin in Thailand is tapped from Pinus merkusii Jungh. It is found in natural forests, on mountains more than 700 meters above sea level, or on high plateaus about 100200 meters above sea level.
There are two products of gum oleoresin in Thailand:
Gum and resin production. In 1989, the production of yang oil was 639.5 tons, valued at 16 million baht (Table 10). Gum oleoresin production was 271.3 tons, valued at 8 million baht. Permits are no longer needed for other resins, so production data are not available.
Exports and imports. Thailand imports a large quantity of gum oleoresin (Table 11) gums, resins, and chinese lacquer (Table 12), although quantities fluctuate considerably from year to year.
Collection and processing. Gum oleoresin and yang oil are protected NWFPs. Permits are required from the Royal Forest Department for harvesting. People are allowed to collect up to 10 kilograms without a permit.
Tapping is by traditional methods. For pine, tapping is by cutting into the trunk of the tree. The first cut is usually 15 centimeters long, 10 centimeters wide, and 3 centimeters deep. Every 7, days the resin is collected and the wound is enlarged with a fresh cut. After 1 year, the wound should not be longer than 30 centimeters. The width and the depth should not be more than the first cutting. Only trees of a minimum girth of 120 centimeters are allowed to be tapped. Resin is tapped only from trees in the natural forest.
To tap yang oil, a hole about 30 centimeters wide by 30 centimeters high and 20 centimeters deep is made in the trunk of the tree. The tapper collects the oil every 10 to 15 days. At each collection, a fresh fire is lit for 2 minutes to melt the hardening resin and stimulate flow. Only trees with a minimum girth of 200 centimeters are allowed to be tapped.
Recommendations. Traditional resin tapping methods are very harmful to trees, thus the opportunities for expanding production under current methods are limited. Training and extension in improved tapping techniques are needed.
Table 10. Gum and resin production in Thailand, 1986-1989
Table 11. Exports and imports of natural resins and spirits of turpentinne
Table 12. Exports and imports of gum, resins and Chinese lacquer
Bark
Bark is a source of tannin and natural dye. Some bark is used medicinally or as spices (Table 13). Permits are required for harvesting some species such as Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb., Broussonetia papyrifera Vent., Cinnammom bejolghota Sweet, Shorea floribunda Kurz., and Pentace burmanica Kurz.
Persea kurzii Kosterm (yang bong), which is one of the elements of kobauk, is the most important bark harvested from Thai forests. Kobauk is a binder compound composed of yang bong bark and saw dust used for making joss sticks.
Bark production. The production of bark in 1979 was 1,997.1 tons valued at Baht 7.1 million. Production has decreased substantially to only 55.6 tons, valued at 778,000 baht in 1989.
Exports. The quantity and value of exports of kobuak is very high, surpassing 5,000 tons and 40 million baht in most years (Table 15).
Collection and processing. Permits are required for harvesting some types of economic bark.
The method of de-barking makes use of a sharp knife to peel along the trunk of the tree. The size of the wound should not be more than 20 centimeters wide by 80 centimeters long and 1 centimeter deep. The space between each wound should be more than 30 centimeters. After peeling, the wound should be painted with tar oil or anti-fungus solvent to prevent fungi attack. Bark is dried in the open air.
Recommendations. Bark is a good source of tannin for the tanning industry, but Thailand thus far has not succeeded in producing commercial quantities to meet local needs. Thailand has to import considerable quantities of tannin. More than 30 centimeters. After peeling, the wound should be painted with tar oil or anti-fungus solvent to prevent fungi attack. Bark is dried in the open air.
Agarwood
Agarwood is the trade name of aromatic resin permeated wood of Aguilaria spp., family Thymelaeaceae. The tree is a large evergreen 18 to 21 meters tall, and 1.5 to 1.8 meters in girth, distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar and Thailand.
Table 14. Bark production from forest areas in Thailand
Agarwood can be used in different ways. Low grade agarwood is distilled to produce agar attar, which is used in the perfume and tobacco industries. High-grade agarwood is exported to Arab countries, where it is used as incense and in the manufacture of joss sticks. The wood has been variously described as a stimulant, a tonic and a carminative, and is an ingredient of several medical preparations for rheumatism, body pains, and heart palpitation. Agarwood sells for US$ 15-692 per kilogram, depending on quality, while oil distilled from the wood sells for US$ 154-192 per 10 millimeter bottles.
Table 15. Exports of kobuak powder
Collection and processing. To collect agarwood from the forest, villagers fell the trees to look for it. Most trees will yield no agarwood, but a well-laden tree can provide several thousand dollars worth of wood. This illegal activity causes serious ecological damage and the loss of the trees. Therefore, much research has been done to find ways of changing normal wood to agarwood. Some success has been attained in inducing agarwood formation by wounding trees. Introduction of fungi on the trees also appears to enhance agarwood formation.
Agarwood to be used as incense is sold in unprocessed form. For medicine, the wood is ground or chipped. For essential oil, the wood is ground and steam distilled. The wood powder, after oil is distilled, is used in making joss sticks.
Edible Mushrooms
Mushrooms have become an important forest product in Thailand and have recently earned the country substantial money from exports.
In Thailand, mushrooms are found in forests in all regions, especially during the rainy season. Some wild mushrooms such as Termitomyces spp., and Russula delica, are delicacies and are sold.
Many edible mushrooms are ectomycorrhiza, such as R. delica, which, mycorrhizae with dipterocarp species, help trees to up take phosphorus. Boletus griseipurpureus also forms mycorrhizae with various trees, including Acacia auriculaeformis, A. mangium and Melaleuca leucadendra. It is estimated that this mushroom can earn Bt2,000 to 3,000 per rai, at a selling price of Baht 40 to 60 per kilogram.
Medicinal Plants and Spices
Humans have used plants as traditional remedies for centuries. In the proper and safe use of plants for medicine, it is necessary to know plants well. There are many kinds of medicinal plants in the forests of Thailand. Of 5, 800 plant species indigenous to Thailand, 1,900 species have already been studied for their medicinal value. Over 800 species are described in Thai traditional recipes. About 400 species are available from traditional drug vendors, and about 50 species are used by traditional medicine manufacturers.
Drugs are derived from various parts of plants including fruits, flowers, leaves, stems and roots of trees, vines, shrubs and herbs. These raw materials are exported or processed into modern and traditional medicine. Traditional medicines include drugs from nature which can be used in their natural state or slightly modified.
The most important active constituents are alkaloids such as reserpine, saponin, colchicine and peperazine. Some traditional medicinal plants with potential commercial value include: Rauvolfia serpentina, Gloriosa superba, Cassia angustifolia, Amomum krevanh, Dioscorea spp.,
Cartharanthus roscus, Strychnos nux-vomica, Diospyros mollis, Costus speciosus, Derris elliptica, Hydrocarpus anthelmintica, Calophyllum inophyllum, and Stemona tuberosa.
Spices are used for artificial flavoring to enhance taste and aroma, and to stimulate enzymes for digestion. Most spices thrive in the tropical zone of Asia.
Most spices consist of essential oils. Some important species from the forest are Amomum krevanh, Cinnamomum iners, and C. bejolghota. Some cultivated spice trees in the country are exotic species. These are Eugenia caryophyllus, Apium graveolens, Cinnamomum verum, and Myristica fragrans.
In most years, Thailand has exported more spices than it imports. Export quantities peaked in 1982 at 8,240 tons. Quantities of spices exported declined significantly since the mid-1980s, but revenue reached nearly Bt140 million in 1988 as higher-value spices were exported (Table 16).
Unfortunately, it is difficult to get data on the actual production of NWFPs, because most harvesting is done illegally. Collection methods are still primative for most NWFPs. Many wild species are ignored because little is known about them. Recommendations to promote NWFPs are as follows:
Table 16. Exports and imports of spices
1 US$ = Bt 25.70
1 Baht = US$ .039
(July 1991)
High-quality bamboo and rattan furniture has become a major foreign exchange earner for Southeast Asian countries.
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For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5334e/x5334e0b.htm#TopOfPage
Wanida Subsansenee
Non-Wood Forest Products Sub-Division
Forest Products Research Division
Royal Forest Department
FAO Report, 26 June 2016 Saturday
Introduction
Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs), as defined in Thailand, refer to all forest products other than timber, small wood and fuelwood. NWFPs are essential to the livelihood and well-being of Thai rural communities. In the past, NWFPs received only modest attention from the Royal Forest Department (RFD), and the quantity and diversity has decreased drastically for four reasons:· Adverse impact of deforestation and environmental degradation;Now, the direct and indirect values of NWFPs are more clearly recognized and are receiving interest from the government of Thailand as well as from other tropical countries and international agencies. Compilation of data on NWFPs, improved cultivation practices, and determination of accurate yield estimates are current priority activities. The direct and indirect benefits of NWFPs to rural communities are being assessed with a view toward product improvement, management and marketing of NWFPs.
· Over-exploitation;
· Use of traditional, unimproved methods in harvesting; and
· Lack of information and inadequate training.
Because of the diversified nature of NWFPs, it is difficult to assess their value. Uses of NWFPs in rural communities differ greatly from one area to another. NWFPs are normally used for subsistence purposes, but some are also traded. Requests to RFD for NWFP harvesting permits are few in number and are considered unnecessary by local users. Thus, accurate data on NWFPs are difficult to maintain.
Official classification of NWFPs
According to Forest Act B.E. 2484 (A.D. 1941), NWFPs are divided into two categories as follows:· Protected NWFPs including wild orchids, aromatic wood (Dracaena loureire), agarwood (Aguilaria sp.), sappan (Caesalpinia sappan) charcoal, yang oil (gurjan), some palm leaves, some bark (Gasternopsis spp., Hopea spp., Persea spp., Artocardus spp., Cinnamomum spp., etc.), Platycerium spp., gums, resin (gutta percha, jelutong, lacquer resin, oleoresin), some ferns, and rattans.· Unprotected NWFPs: All others not specified above.
Benefits and importance of NWFPs
NWFPs are important in providing the following benefits in Thailand:· Food and household use;The extent of the social value of NWFPs is not known, but by indirect and subjective assessment based on records from the Forest Management Division, there are about 9,500 villages with 862,500 families and 4.85 million residents living in reserve forests in Thailand. Assuming that in each family one member works at harvesting and utilizing NWFPs, approximately one million jobs are dependent on NWFPs.
· Supplements to family earnings from trade at local and domestic levels;
· Generation of rural employment;
· Foreign exchange earnings from exports; and
· Enhanced forest conservation.
Important Thai NWFPs in the international market are shown in Table 1. These include rattan, bamboo, lac, honey, gum, resins and bark. Other NWFPs utilized for food, spices, medicinal plants, and orchids will not be elaborated on in this paper as many of them are now cultivated plants.
Rattan
There are 6 genera and 55 species of rattan in Thailand, the most important being Calamus, Korthalsia, Daemonorops, Plectocomia, Myrialepsis and Plectocomiopsis. Rattan is found from sea level up to 3,000 meters. In Thailand most rattans are found in the south, north and central parts of the country. They grow in swamp, evergreen, dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forests.
Rattan has been used for centuries in Thailand. It is used for:
· Handicrafts such as rattan canes, hats, baskets, ropes and mats;· Furniture;
· Medicines for treating rheumatism, asthma, diarrhea, snake bites and intestinal disorders. (C. rotang, C. ceasius, and C. triginus) and
· Edible fruit and shoots.
Rattan furniture is currently very popular in a number of international markets and has a promising future. The most important large cane species in Thailand used for furniture (Vongkaluang, 1986) are kampuan (C. longisetus), namphung (C. sp.), keesean (C. rudentum), kordam (C. manan), and nguay (C. peregrinus).
The most important small rattans are takathong (C. caesuis), keephung (C. blumei), lek (C. pandanosmus), and keereh (C. densiflorus).
Rattan harvesting. In the past, all rattans except C. caecuis were unprotected NWFPs. People could collect without permits (except in reserved forests). In 1988, however, all rattan was classified as a protected NWFP because of overexploitation. Permits are now required from the Forest Department for harvesting quantities exceeding 10 kilograms. Enforcement of this regulation is weak, resulting in illegal harvesting in most areas. Accurate production records are not available. Legal harvests are given in Table 2, but these levels are believed to vastly underestimate actual harvests.
Table 1. Non-wood forest products exports from Thailand, 1979-1988 (million baht)
1979
|
1980
|
1981
|
1982
|
1983
|
1984
|
1985
|
1986
|
1987
|
1988
| |
| Lac |
89.88
|
111.43
|
84.97
|
141.36
|
278.71
|
479.45
|
582.09
|
395.11
|
287.18
|
121.61
|
| Bamboo |
13.29
|
3.55
|
17.76
|
19.49
|
24.00
|
22.08
|
21.59
|
19.58
|
30.50
|
22.79
|
| Gum |
8.24
|
13.57
|
14.15
|
22.82
|
14.48
|
13.89
|
21.91
|
30.97
|
29.40
|
24.96
|
| Rattan |
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
| ||
| Rattan |
0.65
|
0.02
| ||||||||
| Furniture |
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
441.13
|
520.72
|
712.59
|
479.30
|
| Honey |
0.09
|
0.002
|
0.004
|
0.23
|
0,10
|
0.16
|
5.19
|
4.80
|
11.46
|
24.55
|
| Resins |
0.02
|
0.28
|
0.09
|
-
|
-
|
0.07
|
0.04
|
0.11
|
0.76
|
0.50
|
| Spices |
12.79
|
18.13
|
65.15
|
108.19
|
106.62
|
150.94
|
129.80
|
57.48
|
26.14
|
137.72
|
| Kobuak |
58.82
|
-
|
-
|
52.65
|
48.63
|
42.53
|
48.53
|
50.08
|
-
|
47.89
|
| Total |
183.32
|
146.962
|
182.124
|
344.74
|
473.55
|
708.7
|
1260.28
|
1068.85
|
1099.04
|
859.34
|
Table 2. Legal rattan cutting in Thailand
Year
|
Quantity (1000 kg)
|
Value (Baht 1000)
|
1967
|
34,347
|
30,014
|
1968
|
34,195
|
29,876
|
1969
|
3,037
|
3,038
|
1979
|
37,000
|
37,955
|
1971
|
14,897
|
12,509
|
1972
|
23,839
|
20,017
|
1973
|
23,369
|
22,591
|
1974
|
64,894
|
70,302
|
1975
|
8,429
|
9,132
|
1976
|
4,752
|
5,148
|
1977
|
8,150
|
9,237
|
1978
|
11,112
|
12,964
|
1979
|
3,152
|
4,203
|
1980
|
2,320
|
4,640
|
1981
|
205
|
1,516
|
1982
|
385
|
3,374
|
1983
|
2,924
|
35.088
|
1984
|
1,303
|
15,637
|
1985
|
2,588
|
30,338
|
1986
|
3,147
|
37,633
|
1987
|
5,960
|
74,500
|
1988
|
3,558
|
46,254
|
1989
|
1,235
|
16,670
|
Source: Royal Forest Department
Notes:
1) Rattan was declared a protected NWFP in 1988.
2) Commercial logging in natural forests banned in 1989.
Exports and imports. Thailand imports a large volume of raw rattan from Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Malaysia and others. As rattan furniture for export has grown in popularity, the quantity of raw rattan imported has increased rapidly (Table 3). In 1967, the quantity imported was 64.2 tons, valued at Bt618,300. By 1988, the quantity imported had grown to 29,339 tons, valued at Bt224 million. These figures indicate that a great quantity of rattan was imported to serve the increasing demand of the rattan furniture industry.
Very little raw rattan is exported from Thailand. The largest quantify was in 1977: 436.7 tons valued at Bt729,500. The export of raw rattan was banned in 1978.
Collection and processing. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has established temporary regulations for harvesting. When better data and information on growth rates and cutting regimes becomes available, these regulations may be revised. The current regulations direct collectors to:
· Cut only mature cane of at least 8 meter in length.
· Leave half of the stems in the clumps.
· Clear the area under the clumps after harvesting.
· Follow a felling rotation of 5 years.
Rattan canes are easily recognized as being mature when the leaf sheath has fallen. The best time for cutting rattan is from November to March. Sometimes peeling and splitting of cane is done in the field with ordinary knoves prior to transporting to the factory. In the factory, peeling and splitting of cane are done by machine.
Table 3. Exports and imports of raw rattan and furniture, Thailand
Exports
|
Imports
| ||||
Year
|
Raw rattan
|
Rattan furniture
|
Raw rattan
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1000 baht)
|
Value (million baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1000 baht)
| |
1967
|
16.8
|
14.2
|
-
|
64.2
|
618.3
|
1968
|
25.0
|
13.6
|
-
|
66.8
|
689,0
|
1969
|
50.3
|
30.1
|
-
|
78.7
|
913.8
|
1970
|
62.8
|
366.4
|
-
|
84.8
|
836.3
|
1971
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
67.8
|
622.0
|
1972
|
6.8
|
6.2
|
-
|
76.7
|
679,4
|
1973
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
62.5
|
572.8
|
1974
|
10.2
|
9.0
|
-
|
61.1
|
564.9
|
1975
|
39.0
|
100.4
|
-
|
96.3
|
1,054.7
|
1976
|
58.1
|
47.6
|
-
|
194.5
|
2,091.6
|
1977
|
436.1
|
729.5
|
-
|
219.0
|
1,781.7
|
1978
|
244.2
|
705.5
|
-
|
263.9
|
2,350.7
|
1979
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
348.6
|
6,816.8
|
1980
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
411.0
|
10,222.7
|
1981
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
841.1
|
17,608.9
|
1982
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
3,163.7
|
29,123.3
|
1983
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
6,571.8
|
51,014.2
|
1984
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
5,389.6
|
58,767.6
|
1985
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
7,391.7
|
74,485.2
|
1986
|
-
|
-
|
520.7
|
11,029.0
|
93,516.0
|
1987
|
-
|
-
|
712.9
|
18,443.0
|
142,233.0
|
1988
|
-
|
-
|
479.3
|
29,338.9
|
224,446.4
|
1989
|
331.0
|
4,810.0
|
369.3
|
27,187.6
|
164,063.0
|
1990
|
0.3
|
120.9
|
279.9
|
15,977.4
|
136,268.2
|
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics
Note: (1) Export of raw rattan was banned in 1979
After harvesting, there are many methods of treatment including:
· Drying in the sun until the moisture content is 5 to 10 percent;· Washing in water, rubbing with sand and coconut husk, and drying in the sun until the moisture content is 5 to 10 percent;Employment generation. Chuntanaparb, et. al (1985) estimated that the local productions of rattan was 5 to 6 million kilograms per annum, with an estimated value of Bt40 million, creating about 35,000 person-days of employment each year in harvesting and transport and about 400,000 person-days of employment in furniture production.
· Washing in water, fumigating with SO2, drying in the sun, washing in water, and rubbing with sand and coconut husk;
· Immersing in sodium hypochlorite for 1 hour, washing in water, fumigating with SO2, drying in the sun;
· Boiling in a mixture of diesel and coconut or palm oil 30 to 40 minutes at 70 to 120° C, rubbing with coconut husk, drying in the sun.
Recommendations. Rattan production in Thailand comes almost entirely from the wild and is insufficient to meet the demands of the rattan industry. Rattan harvesting permits have decreased rapidly as diminishing forest resources and uncontrolled exploitation have seriously depleted the stock of wild rattan.
Plantations of rattan are not yet well established. It is necessary to find appropriate methods for the successful establishment of rattan plantations, and to find appropriate technologies for harvesting, post-harvest, and pre-factory treatment.
Bamboo
Bamboo is found throughout Thailand, mostly in mixed deciduous forests. It covers about 810,000 hectares (5.5 percent of the forest area). Thirteen genera, with more them 60 species, are found in Thailand, including Arundiaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Mclocalamus, melocanna, Neohouzeaua, Pseudosasa, Schizostachyum, Teinostachyum and Thyrsostachys.
Bamboo has many uses. The culms are used for house construction, scaffolding, props, ladders, fencing, containers, pipes, toys, musical instruments, furniture, wicker work, partitions, house walls, fuel and raw material for pulp and paper making. Shoots are a popular food, Used in fresh and preserved foods. Bamboo serves as fencing, windbreaks, and to prevent river bank erosion. The best known species are Thyrsostachys siamensis and Dendrocalamus asper. Thyrsostachys siamensis is mostly collected from natural forests. The species is tolerant of drought and saline soil. It was the primary raw material for pulp and paper making in Thailand from 1939 to 1984. Each year, over 5 million culms were required for the pulp and paper industry. Owing to the strong demand for bamboo stalks, this species is diminishing.
Dendrocalamus asper is a favourite species for bamboo plantations. The advantages of their species are simple propagation requirements, a short cutting cycle, and high yields of quality young shoots. The culms are suitable for building materials and toothpicks.
Bamboo harvesting. The culms removed from forest under RFD permits are showed in Table 4.
Table 4. Official records of bamboo culms removed from natural forests in Thailand
Year
|
Quantity (1,000 culms)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
1979
|
14,711
|
88,272
|
1980
|
2,260
|
15,825
|
1981
|
2,173
|
15,216
|
1982
|
16,003
|
160,030
|
1983
|
1,102
|
13,227
|
1984
|
555
|
6,661
|
1985
|
8,884
|
106,614
|
1986
|
6,485
|
77,823
|
1987
|
13,495
|
202,426
|
1988
|
18,863
|
339,551
|
1989
|
15,597
|
311,959
|
Source: Royal Forest Department
The annual demand for bamboo is much greater than the volumes indicated in Table 4, so these data should be considered only a potential indication of harvest levels. Some bamboo species are not on the protected list and are therefore not reflected in RFD statistics. Official bamboo harvest levels peaked in 1988 at 18.9 million culms, valued at Bt 339.6 million.
Exports and imports. Table 5 shows the total quantities and value of bamboo exports and imports, including, bamboo stalks, bamboo shoots, bamboo poles, and toothpicks. Dried bamboo shoots are the main import item.
Table 5. Exports and imports of bamboo and bamboo products
Exports
|
Imports
| |||
Year
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value
|
Quantity
|
Value
|
1979
|
6.552
|
13,286
|
468
|
16,009
|
1980
|
198
|
3,546
|
138
|
9,859
|
1981
|
6,230
|
17,762
|
242
|
11,390
|
1982
|
5,733
|
19,491
|
136
|
9,637
|
1983
|
8,306
|
23,997
|
200
|
16,315
|
1984
|
3,246
|
22,076
|
231
|
25,028
|
1985
|
9,667
|
31,592
|
6
|
262
|
1986
|
4,836
|
19,584
|
98
|
10,594
|
1987
|
5,735
|
30,496
|
187
|
10,265
|
1988
|
292
|
22,789
|
280
|
13,492
|
Source: Department of CustomsIn the last decade, exports surpassed imports in every year except 1980.
Collection and processing. Bamboo harvesting is carried out by selective cutting. The one-year old culms should not be harvested in order to maintain growth. Cutting is generally done by using a small axe, machete, bill hook or saw.
The first harvest is between the third and fifth year of growth. There are up to 5 shoots from each culm in the first and second year. Mature culms are at the center of each clump, and are surrounded by up to 5 new shoots each year. The 2-to 3-year old clumps are cut for bamboo stalks, poles, construction work and wicker work. The clumps should be cut at the bottom close to the ground. Quality decreases if over-aged clumps are left uncut. These. clumps become brittle while the immature ones are not durable. Cutting is easier from November through March. Studies have indicated the suitability of a 3-year cutting cycle for Thysostachys siamensis in natural forests conditions. Consecutive cuttings 3 years apart each yielded more than 10,000 culms per hectare with no reduction in stem quality (Suwannopinan, et al, 1982).
De-branching of the culms is done immediately after cutting. The culms are then cut to the desired length. Bundling may or may not be done before the poles are transported to the roadsite or the yard.
It is important to keep the poles free from insect infestation and deterioration. The general practice are:
· Upon reaching the yard, poles are graded according to size, length and defects.Bamboo shoot harvesting is done from May to October (the rainy season). Shoots can be collected from the clumps daily, or twice a week. In bamboo plantations, 1- or 2-year old stalks of Dendrocalamus asper, each yield about 5 or 6 shoots per year. Bamboo shoots can grow 90 to 120 centimeters per day under ideal conditions. For export, the average weight of shoots should range from 0.4 to 2.0 kilograms.
· Poles are dried by sun, air seasoning, or in an oven.
· Poles are dipped into diesel fuel to protect them from insect infestation and again dried by air.
· Poles are bundled for sale and delivery.
Shoot processing includes:
· Removal of the leaf. Leaf sheath and oral setae;
· Boiling of the shoot in water, followed by drying or fermenting;
· Cutting into appropriate sizes and lengths;
· Packing for delivery.
Recommendations. The availability and production of local bamboo do not meet the demand. Corrective measures should include:
· Increasing the size of the bamboo plantations. Suitable species and spacing for various purposes and sites should be determined.· Improved management techniques. The recommended schedules and methods of harvesting should be followed. Extension and training are needed.Lac
· Employing suitable harvesting and processing techniques. It is important to keep the poles or shoots in their best condition. Practical and economic methods should be devised.
Lac is an unprotected non-wood forest product. It is the resinous protective secretion of the lac insect, Laccifer lacca, found in India, China, Laos and Burma. The largest lac producing areas are in the North and Northeast. Lac can provide extra income for farmers in rural areas and for the people collecting NWFPs from the forest. Lac is used for various products including:
· Lac dye: lac dye is fast in animal fibres such as wool and silk and has a bright red colour. Different attractive shades may be obtained by using different mordants. The silk cottage industry in many villages uses stick lac for colour-fast dyeing of silk. Lac dye is edible, therefore, it can be used for colouring soft drinks and food.· Shellac: used for painting and furniture manufacturing.Lac production. Production of lac fluctuates dramatically (Table 6). The highest production ever recorded in Thailand was about 24,000 tons in 1974/75. The lowest production, in 1980/81, was only about 800 tons, due to unfavourable weather. The average production over the last 10 years was about 7,000 tons. The major areas of lac cultivation are in the North, which produce about 84 percent of the lac crop (Wanida, 1986).
· Bleached shellac: used the same as shellac. Currently, light coloured furniture is popular and bleached shellac is in demand.
Exports and imports. The quantity and value of lac exports fluctuates according to the production and the world market price (Table 7). In 1983, lac exports totalled 9,423 tons, valued at Bt279 million. In 1985, the exports were 6,258 tons valued at Bt582 million. Exports decreased in 1988 to only 3,483 tons, valued at Bt122 million. The amount of lac imported is very small.
Collection. Normally there are 2 broods of lac in a year; in May and June, and November and December. However, lac is cropped only once a year, from September to December.
There are a large number of trees and shrubs which are the hosts of lac insect. The major lac host tree in Thailand is the rain tree (Samanea saman). Other suitable lac host trees are Albizzia lucidior, Combretum quadrangerlae, Zyzyphus mauritiana, and Croton arguratus.
Lac host trees should be pruned 1 to 2 years before inoculation. The brood lac to be used for the infection of the new trees should be healthy and uninfected by pests. The brood lac selected should be cut into a length of about 6 inches and tied with string at the end of the twig and covered with a straw basket. Brood lac should be tied to the tree, vertically or as near as possible to the branch to which the young are to settle.
Brood lac should be left on the branch about 1 week, then moved to another branch. It should be left on the tree no longer than 3 weeks. Care must be taken not to over-infect the host. The lac insect will complete its generation within 6 months. Then the lac can be cropped or left on the tree for self-infection for a second cropping cycle. A 3-year rotation for host trees should be used.
Lac is cropped from trees both for use as brood and for use in industry. The methods of collecting are different.
For use as brood, lac should be left on the tree until the lac are ready to swarm. It is harmful to cut the lac before or after it matures. Premature cutting of the lac is harmful because the females are cut off from their food supply and become weak. Late cutting is also harmful because the young larvae will be lost before the lac is cut. The most appropriate method for cutting brood lac is by examination of the orange yellow spot area of the female lac cell. With the appearance of cracks in the encrustation, the encrustation can be pulled off from the host twig.
Table 6. Stick lac production in Thailand
Production
|
Value
| ||||
Year
|
North (1,000 kg)
|
Northeast (1,000 kg)
|
Total (1,000 kg)
|
Unit value (baht/kg)
|
Total (1.000 baht)
|
1979/80
|
3,800
|
-
|
3,800
|
-
|
-
|
1980/81
|
400
|
400
|
800
|
-
|
-
|
1981/82
|
3,500
|
400
|
3,900
|
-
|
-
|
1982/83
|
11,000
|
1,500
|
12,500
|
6.50-10.00
|
103,125
|
1983/84
|
1,000
|
300
|
1,300
|
24.00-27.00
|
33,150
|
1984/85
|
7,000
|
1,000
|
8,000
|
28.00-80.00
|
432,000
|
1985/86
|
14,000
|
1,500
|
15,500
|
15.00-35.00
|
348,750
|
1986/87
|
9,000
|
1,000
|
10,000
|
11.00-17.00
|
140,000
|
1987/88
|
4,000
|
800
|
4,800
|
16.00-25.00
|
98,400
|
1988/89
|
3,500
|
1,000
|
4,500
|
8.00-12.00
|
45,000
|
1989/90
|
6,550
|
700
|
7,250
|
6.50-9.50
|
58,000
|
1990/91
|
5,250
|
650
|
5,900
|
9.00-11.00
|
59,000
|
Source: Thai Lac Association
Table 7. Exports and imports of lac products
Year
|
Exports
|
Imports
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1.000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
| |
1979
|
7,359
|
89,884
|
15
|
292
|
1980
|
5,526
|
111,432
|
7
|
282
|
1981
|
2,642
|
84,970
|
3
|
247
|
1982
|
6,361
|
141,363
|
3
|
224
|
1983
|
9,423
|
278,714
|
10
|
49
|
1984
|
9,628
|
479,452
|
68
|
258
|
1985
|
6,258
|
582,090
|
8
|
1,523
|
1986
|
8,055
|
395,112
|
5
|
1,668
|
1987
|
7,685
|
287,184
|
2
|
1,075
|
1988
|
3,483
|
121,616
|
8
|
1,353
|
Source: Department of CustomsFor industrial harvesting, lac should be cut just a short time before swarming is due to occur. For use as lac dye, lac should be collected before swarming, because at this period the lac cell contains the highest content of dye.
Precautions in collection and storage. After lac is cut, it should be scraped from the twigs as soon as possible with sharp knives. To prevent lac from forming blocks it should be spread on a clean floor and air dried away from direct sunlight.
The lac may be spread in layers about 4 inches deep to prevent it from sticking together when freshly cut. Lac may be raked once a day until it is dry, then raked once every 3 to 4 days. If the lac has already formed blocks, they should be broken at once. Blocky lac makes processing difficult and the lac also loses chemical and physical properties, causing its price to decline.
Lac should be stored in a cool and ventilated room, and should be fumigated with carbon bi-sulphide to protect against insect attack. Lac can easily deteriorate if stored improperly.
Seedlac processing. After scraping the lac from the twig, the dust and stick should be collected by hand. Then the sticklac is crushed by a lac crusher, after which it is ready for washing. Crushed lac is placed in a cement tank and washed. Lac can be washed with plain water or soda ash can be added to make it clearer. Then the water containing the lac dye is allowed to run off. This process is repeated three or four times until most of the lac dye has been removed. The material left over is called seedlac. The seedlac is dried on a cement floor.
Shellac processing. Seedlac is converted to shellac by a steaming process. The seedlac is passed through a sieve after melting by a steaming process using 40 to 50 pound per square inch of pressure for 1 1/2 hours. The processed material is called shellac. After the hot shellac tray is removed from the steaming process, the tray is placed in water and the cooled shellac is pulled from the tray.
Flake shellac can be made by heating shellac over a fire (if a yellow colour is desired, it is mixed with yellow arsenic sulphide). Then the molten shellac is transferred through the cooling rollers of a sheeter and passed along a belt conveyer to obtain a sheet of shellac. The shallec is then dried, broken into small chips, and stored in an air-conditioned room at a temperature of 10° to 20°C.
Bleached shellac processing. To produce bleached shellac, seedlac is dissolved in a hot solution of soda ash at a temperature of 70 to 80°C and boiled for about 1 hour. After all the lac is dissolved, the lac solution is filtered through a nylon (cloth to remove the impurities) and allowed to cool. Bleach liquor is added until the lac solution is fairly well bleached. Dilute sulphuric acid is slowly added to the solution until it is neutral. Bleached shellac forms in a fine granular size, then it is filtered through a muslin bag and thoroughly washed in cold water. The precipitated bleached shellac is squeezed out, dried, crushed into powder, and kept in a cool place.
Employment generation. In 1989, the Forest Products Research Division of the Royal Forest Department surveyed the families involved in lac cultivation in Phrae, Lampang, Phayao and Tak Provinces. It was estimated that about 2,100 tons of lac production created jobs for 15,400 families. In 1989/90, the production of 7,250 tons created employment for 53,200 families.
Recommendations. After logging concessions were closed in 1989, rain tree (Samanea saman), the lac host trees, became very popular for wood carving, handicraft manufacture, and furniture. Large trees now sell for Bt 20,000 as timber, and smaller trees sell for Bt 2,000 to Bt 3,000. Because of the resulting harvest of rain tree for other uses, the number of lac host trees has drastically declined. It is necessary to promote rain tree plantations in rural areas, especially in the areas lac had previously been cultivated. Research on lac production in all the aspects should be initiated.
Honey
Honey was previously classified as a protected NWFP but in 1988 it was reclassified as an unprotected NWFP. There are four species of honeybee in Thailand. Three species occur naturally in forests: the giant bee, or rock bee (Apis dorsata); the hive bee (A. cerana); and the little bee (A. florea). A fourth species (A. mellifera) has been introduced for honey production in Thailand. Here are seven commercial products from bees. Honey is the main product. The others are wax, pollen, royal jelly, propolis, venom and bees themselves.
· Honey is used as food or sweetener in medicines.· Wax is used for polish, cosmetics, candles, and comb foundations for beehives.Bees and bee products can provide extra income for people in rural areas. In some cases, beekeeping can be a full-time occupation (Chuntanaparb, et al., 1985).
· Pollen is used as a dietary supplement and in herbal medicine.
· Royal jelly has a reputation as an aphrodisiac, a panacea and a rejuvenator.
· Propolis is used on a small scale medicinally for its bacteracidal properties.
· Bee venom is used medicinally for desensitizing people hyper-allergic to bee stings and as a folk medicine to prevent arthritis.
· Bees are sold to other producers to form new hives.
Honey production. The official production and value figures for honey collected from natural forests with RFD permits are given in Table 8. The figures significantly underestimate total production.
No estimates of the amount of honey from beekeeping throughout the country are available. It may be assumed that northern Thailand is the best place for beekeeping.
Table 8. Honey production in forest areas of Thailand
Year
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
1979
|
23.80
|
1,904.0
|
1980
|
0.03
|
4.2
|
1981
| ||
1982
| ||
1983
|
1.00
|
121.2
|
1984
|
0.50
|
64.8
|
There are about 50,000 hives in the North, and 3,000 to 6,000 hives in the south. It is estimated that 1 hive produces about 40 kilograms of honey. Therefore the honey production from beekeeping could be estimated at about 2,000 tons per annum.
Exports and imports. In 1988, 1,750 tons of honey, worth 24.5 million baht, were exported. The quantity of honey exported increased rapidly between 1987 and 1988 reflecting the considerable promise of honey export markets. Imports decreased from 1,240 tons in 1986 to only 143.2 tons in 1988 as domestic production increased.
Collection and processing. For wild honey, hives are smoked with a torch made of fresh leaves and dry grass until the bees flee from the hive. The honey is then removed from the hive. This method is used for Apis dorsata and A. cerana hives. For A. florea, a cigar is used instead of a torch. The honey is then extracted, filtered and placed in jars. Harvest time is from April to June.
For beekeeping, combs should be removed from the colony to extract the honey. The honey combs are brought into a bee-tight room for uncapping and extracting. The uncapping tool is a sharp knife heated by hot water. The honey is extracted by centrifugal force. The extracted honey is left in a honey storage tank for several days to allow air bubbles, bits of wax, and any fine particles to rise to the top. These are skimmed off before bottling.
Table 9. Exports and imports of honey, 1979-1988
Year
|
Exports
|
Imports
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 Baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 Baht)
| |
1979
|
.640
|
88
|
137.237
|
8,555
|
1980
|
.012
|
2
|
66.428
|
1,296
|
1981
|
.010
|
4
|
31.472
|
5,620
|
1982
|
12.142
|
234
|
123.002
|
5,139
|
1983
|
69.829
|
1,104
|
192.346
|
7,290
|
1984
|
116.899
|
160
|
3,378.359
|
3,788
|
1985
|
288.900
|
5,199
|
130.359
|
5,267
|
1986
|
139 517
|
4,797
|
1,240.007
|
24,080
|
1987
|
748.813
|
11,464
|
148.579
|
6,922
|
1988
|
1,749.762
|
24,548
|
143.236
|
5,088
|
Source: Department of Customs
Recommendations. If beekeepers want to achieve the maximum high-quality honey production, they must have information on pollen and nectar sources. It is, therefore, essential to support additional study of the phenology of flowers.
Gums and Resins
Gums and resins are products obtained from the exudation of plants. Resins from different sources show great differences in their chemical composition and properties. The most important resins produced in Thailand are naval stores (oleoresin), used in the paper, rubber, ink, and adhesive industries; and yang oil or "gurjan," produced from the resin of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. and other dipterocarps, which is used for making varnish.
Other gums and resins produced in Thailand include gamboge from Garcinia hanburvi; Chinese lacquer from Melanorrhoea usitata; wall benzoin from Styrax bezoin; gutta percha from Palaguium obovatum Engler; Jelutong from Dyera costulata; and other dipterocarp resins. Gum damar from dipterocarps which can be used for the manufacturing varnish can also be collected in Thailand.
Gum oleoresin in Thailand is tapped from Pinus merkusii Jungh. It is found in natural forests, on mountains more than 700 meters above sea level, or on high plateaus about 100200 meters above sea level.
There are two products of gum oleoresin in Thailand:
· Gum rosin, which is used in making paper, paints, and adhesives. andGurjan or yang oil is also tapped from various Dipterocarpus species. It is used to make torches, varnish, printing ink, and (mixed with gums damar) to caulk boats and waterproof bamboo baskets. It is commonly used as a preservative for wood and bamboo. Recently, yang oil has been used to produce balsam oil for perfume base. Yang oil and gum oleoresin are protected NWFPs.
· Gum turpentine, which is mostly used in paint manufacturing and pharmaceuticals.
Gum and resin production. In 1989, the production of yang oil was 639.5 tons, valued at 16 million baht (Table 10). Gum oleoresin production was 271.3 tons, valued at 8 million baht. Permits are no longer needed for other resins, so production data are not available.
Exports and imports. Thailand imports a large quantity of gum oleoresin (Table 11) gums, resins, and chinese lacquer (Table 12), although quantities fluctuate considerably from year to year.
Collection and processing. Gum oleoresin and yang oil are protected NWFPs. Permits are required from the Royal Forest Department for harvesting. People are allowed to collect up to 10 kilograms without a permit.
Tapping is by traditional methods. For pine, tapping is by cutting into the trunk of the tree. The first cut is usually 15 centimeters long, 10 centimeters wide, and 3 centimeters deep. Every 7, days the resin is collected and the wound is enlarged with a fresh cut. After 1 year, the wound should not be longer than 30 centimeters. The width and the depth should not be more than the first cutting. Only trees of a minimum girth of 120 centimeters are allowed to be tapped. Resin is tapped only from trees in the natural forest.
To tap yang oil, a hole about 30 centimeters wide by 30 centimeters high and 20 centimeters deep is made in the trunk of the tree. The tapper collects the oil every 10 to 15 days. At each collection, a fresh fire is lit for 2 minutes to melt the hardening resin and stimulate flow. Only trees with a minimum girth of 200 centimeters are allowed to be tapped.
Recommendations. Traditional resin tapping methods are very harmful to trees, thus the opportunities for expanding production under current methods are limited. Training and extension in improved tapping techniques are needed.
Table 10. Gum and resin production in Thailand, 1986-1989
Year
|
Gum oleoresin
|
Yang oil (gurjan)
|
Other resins
| |||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
| |
| 1986 |
245.6
|
6,877.7
|
682.4
|
10,918.8
|
31,50
|
851.2
|
| 1987 |
254.3
|
7,121.4
|
661.9
|
11,897.3
|
0.01
|
0.2
|
| 1988 |
313.6
|
8,781,7
|
531.9
|
10,107.2
|
-
|
-
|
| 1989 |
271.3
|
7,597.4
|
639.5
|
15,986.9
|
-
|
-
|
Table 11. Exports and imports of natural resins and spirits of turpentinne
Year
|
Exports
|
Exports
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
| |
1979
|
1
|
18
|
220
|
3,175
|
1980
|
17
|
275
|
212
|
3,480
|
1981
|
1
|
85
|
218
|
3,829
|
1982
|
-
|
-
|
97
|
1,125
|
1983
|
-
|
-
|
339
|
5,812
|
1984
|
1
|
69
|
1
|
191
|
1985
|
1
|
42
|
262
|
4,720
|
1986
|
2
|
105
|
73
|
2,442
|
1987
|
6
|
756
|
126
|
1,884
|
1988
|
17
|
499
|
230
|
3,137
|
Source: Department of Customs
Table 12. Exports and imports of gum, resins and Chinese lacquer
Year
|
Exports
|
Imports
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
| |
1979
|
783
|
8.245
|
347
|
6,027
|
1980
|
1,321
|
13,565
|
372
|
10,410
|
1981
|
766
|
14,146
|
200
|
18,509
|
1982
|
1,453
|
22,821
|
671
|
5,905
|
1983
|
1,442
|
14,490
|
356
|
6,019
|
1984
|
1,565
|
13,891
|
551
|
18,153
|
1985
|
2,176
|
21,905
|
529
|
16,163
|
1986
|
2,093
|
20,965
|
892
|
18,600
|
1987
|
1,947
|
29,395
|
2,300
|
23,454
|
1988
|
2,348
|
24,957
|
739
|
18,127
|
Source: Department of CustomsTable 13. Uses of selected bark species in Thailand
Local Name
|
Botanical Name
|
Family
|
Utilization
|
| Mahaat | Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb | Moraceae | Tannin is used for astringents, |
| Paper Mulberry (Po krasaa) | Broussonetia papyrifera Vent | Moraceae | Bark is raw material for paper-nuking, rope nuking and fibre material for other industries. |
| Up choel | Cinnanonum bejolghota Sweet | Lauraceae | Spice and flavour |
| Khian | Cotylelobium lanceolatun Craib | Dipterocarpaceae | Tannin is used for tannery, astringent and anti-fermentation in palm juice. |
| Phayon | Shorea floribunda Kurz, | Dipterocarpaceae | Tannin is used for astringent and anti-fermentation |
| Takhian | Hopea odorata Roxb. | Dipterocarpaceae | Tannin for tanning |
| See siat | Pentace buranica Kurz. | Tilliaceae | Tannin for tanning |
| Sanae | Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob | Rhizophoraceae | Tannin for tanning |
| Mangrove | Rhizophora candelaria DC. (R. conjugata Kurz.) | Rhizophoraceae | Tannin for tanning dyeing astringent and cure diabetese mullitus |
| Red Mangrove | Rhizophora nucronata Lank. (R. longissina Blanco) | Rhizophoraceae | - |
| Ko | Castanopsis indica A. DC | Pagaceae | Tannin is used as an astringent |
| Yaang Bong | Persea kurzii kostern. | Lauraceae | Joss slicks |
Bark is a source of tannin and natural dye. Some bark is used medicinally or as spices (Table 13). Permits are required for harvesting some species such as Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb., Broussonetia papyrifera Vent., Cinnammom bejolghota Sweet, Shorea floribunda Kurz., and Pentace burmanica Kurz.
Persea kurzii Kosterm (yang bong), which is one of the elements of kobauk, is the most important bark harvested from Thai forests. Kobauk is a binder compound composed of yang bong bark and saw dust used for making joss sticks.
Bark production. The production of bark in 1979 was 1,997.1 tons valued at Baht 7.1 million. Production has decreased substantially to only 55.6 tons, valued at 778,000 baht in 1989.
Exports. The quantity and value of exports of kobuak is very high, surpassing 5,000 tons and 40 million baht in most years (Table 15).
Collection and processing. Permits are required for harvesting some types of economic bark.
The method of de-barking makes use of a sharp knife to peel along the trunk of the tree. The size of the wound should not be more than 20 centimeters wide by 80 centimeters long and 1 centimeter deep. The space between each wound should be more than 30 centimeters. After peeling, the wound should be painted with tar oil or anti-fungus solvent to prevent fungi attack. Bark is dried in the open air.
Recommendations. Bark is a good source of tannin for the tanning industry, but Thailand thus far has not succeeded in producing commercial quantities to meet local needs. Thailand has to import considerable quantities of tannin. More than 30 centimeters. After peeling, the wound should be painted with tar oil or anti-fungus solvent to prevent fungi attack. Bark is dried in the open air.
Agarwood
Agarwood is the trade name of aromatic resin permeated wood of Aguilaria spp., family Thymelaeaceae. The tree is a large evergreen 18 to 21 meters tall, and 1.5 to 1.8 meters in girth, distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar and Thailand.
Table 14. Bark production from forest areas in Thailand
Year
|
Quantity (1.000 kg)
|
Value (1.000 baht)
|
1979
|
1,997.1
|
7,147.3
|
1980
|
960.9
|
4,347.3
|
1981
|
170.1
|
1,147.4
|
1982
|
316.3
|
3,479.5
|
1983
|
145.3
|
1,743.2
|
1984
|
499.6
|
5,995.4
|
1985
|
618.9
|
7,426.3
|
1986
|
201.0
|
2.412,4
|
1987
|
232.3
|
2.787.6
|
1988
|
62.1
|
807.7
|
1989
|
55.6
|
777.8
|
Agarwood can be used in different ways. Low grade agarwood is distilled to produce agar attar, which is used in the perfume and tobacco industries. High-grade agarwood is exported to Arab countries, where it is used as incense and in the manufacture of joss sticks. The wood has been variously described as a stimulant, a tonic and a carminative, and is an ingredient of several medical preparations for rheumatism, body pains, and heart palpitation. Agarwood sells for US$ 15-692 per kilogram, depending on quality, while oil distilled from the wood sells for US$ 154-192 per 10 millimeter bottles.
Table 15. Exports of kobuak powder
Year
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
1979
|
7,983
|
58,823
|
1980
|
-
|
-
|
1981
|
-
|
-
|
1982
|
5,345
|
52,646
|
1983
|
4,804
|
48,634
|
1984
|
3,946
|
42,106
|
1985
|
5,346
|
48,534
|
1986
|
5,045
|
50,067
|
1987
|
-
|
-
|
1988
|
5,003
|
47,891
|
Collection and processing. To collect agarwood from the forest, villagers fell the trees to look for it. Most trees will yield no agarwood, but a well-laden tree can provide several thousand dollars worth of wood. This illegal activity causes serious ecological damage and the loss of the trees. Therefore, much research has been done to find ways of changing normal wood to agarwood. Some success has been attained in inducing agarwood formation by wounding trees. Introduction of fungi on the trees also appears to enhance agarwood formation.
Agarwood to be used as incense is sold in unprocessed form. For medicine, the wood is ground or chipped. For essential oil, the wood is ground and steam distilled. The wood powder, after oil is distilled, is used in making joss sticks.
Edible Mushrooms
Mushrooms have become an important forest product in Thailand and have recently earned the country substantial money from exports.
In Thailand, mushrooms are found in forests in all regions, especially during the rainy season. Some wild mushrooms such as Termitomyces spp., and Russula delica, are delicacies and are sold.
Many edible mushrooms are ectomycorrhiza, such as R. delica, which, mycorrhizae with dipterocarp species, help trees to up take phosphorus. Boletus griseipurpureus also forms mycorrhizae with various trees, including Acacia auriculaeformis, A. mangium and Melaleuca leucadendra. It is estimated that this mushroom can earn Bt2,000 to 3,000 per rai, at a selling price of Baht 40 to 60 per kilogram.
Medicinal Plants and Spices
Humans have used plants as traditional remedies for centuries. In the proper and safe use of plants for medicine, it is necessary to know plants well. There are many kinds of medicinal plants in the forests of Thailand. Of 5, 800 plant species indigenous to Thailand, 1,900 species have already been studied for their medicinal value. Over 800 species are described in Thai traditional recipes. About 400 species are available from traditional drug vendors, and about 50 species are used by traditional medicine manufacturers.
Drugs are derived from various parts of plants including fruits, flowers, leaves, stems and roots of trees, vines, shrubs and herbs. These raw materials are exported or processed into modern and traditional medicine. Traditional medicines include drugs from nature which can be used in their natural state or slightly modified.
The most important active constituents are alkaloids such as reserpine, saponin, colchicine and peperazine. Some traditional medicinal plants with potential commercial value include: Rauvolfia serpentina, Gloriosa superba, Cassia angustifolia, Amomum krevanh, Dioscorea spp.,
Cartharanthus roscus, Strychnos nux-vomica, Diospyros mollis, Costus speciosus, Derris elliptica, Hydrocarpus anthelmintica, Calophyllum inophyllum, and Stemona tuberosa.
Spices are used for artificial flavoring to enhance taste and aroma, and to stimulate enzymes for digestion. Most spices thrive in the tropical zone of Asia.
Most spices consist of essential oils. Some important species from the forest are Amomum krevanh, Cinnamomum iners, and C. bejolghota. Some cultivated spice trees in the country are exotic species. These are Eugenia caryophyllus, Apium graveolens, Cinnamomum verum, and Myristica fragrans.
In most years, Thailand has exported more spices than it imports. Export quantities peaked in 1982 at 8,240 tons. Quantities of spices exported declined significantly since the mid-1980s, but revenue reached nearly Bt140 million in 1988 as higher-value spices were exported (Table 16).
Future directions for developing NWFPs
Statistics and data in this paper illustrate that the uses of NWFPs are widespread, especially in rural areas of the country. People can readily collect bamboo, rattan, gums and resin, bark, lac, honey, etc. for extra income. Statistics show that for some species, such as rattan, the availability of raw materials is limited. For certain other species, however, the export potential is promising.Unfortunately, it is difficult to get data on the actual production of NWFPs, because most harvesting is done illegally. Collection methods are still primative for most NWFPs. Many wild species are ignored because little is known about them. Recommendations to promote NWFPs are as follows:
· Improve the statistical data on productivity, domestic uses, imports, and exports of NWFPs. To understand the demand for NWFPs and the potential supply through proper management, systematic studies should be undertaken. Case studies of each major product could be useful.· Study the marketing of NWFPs. The details on product requirements and market preferences are important for the promotion of NWFPs.
· Promote the cultivation of NWFPs by focusing on:
- multi-purpose trees; including rattan, bamboo, rain tree, and Acacia catechu;· Promote the utilization of NWFPs without cutting trees (e.g. utilization of bark for tannin extraction; dye making from bark, leaves or fruits of trees; varnish production from natural gums and resins).
- lac cultivation and beekeeping;
- edible mushroom production in forest plantations;
- wild plants whose products are most in demand in commercial markets, including lacquer trees, pine trees, gutta percha trees, Cinnamomum sp., and the aromatic plants (Aquilaria sp. and Persea sp).
· Research support on:
- natural NWFP resources, their abundance, distribution, ecology, propagation, and reproduction;- methods of cultivation;· Revise legislation and regulations which are out of date and not based on scientific knowledge.
- improving the processing and utilization of NWFPs to increase their quality and market value;
- improving harvesting and post-harvest techniques.
· Impose strict controls to reduce illegal transport and illegal harvesting.
· Introduce improved technologies to villagers through training courses and study tours.
· Establish a NWFP centre in Southeast Asia to exchange research findings and share information among countries.
Table 16. Exports and imports of spices
Year
|
Exports
|
Imports
| ||
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1,000 baht)
|
Quantity (tons)
|
Value (1.000 baht)
| |
1979
|
262
|
12,791
|
1,046
|
26,624
|
1980
|
283
|
18,125
|
720
|
19,763
|
1981
|
356
|
65,148
|
710
|
20,909
|
1982
|
8,240
|
108,191
|
857
|
28,874
|
1983
|
582
|
106,619
|
1,004
|
32,243
|
1984
|
2,203
|
150,942
|
1,231
|
31,420
|
1985
|
2,315
|
129,800
|
854
|
36,434
|
1986
|
1,123
|
57,481
|
888
|
27.555
|
1987
|
771
|
26,143
|
1,094
|
30,293
|
1988
|
410
|
137,722
|
235
|
13,441
|
Source: Department of CustomsCurrency Equivalents
1 US$ = Bt 25.70
1 Baht = US$ .039
(July 1991)
High-quality bamboo and rattan furniture has become a major foreign exchange earner for Southeast Asian countries.
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