World of forestry

ECE Timber Committee and FAO European Forestry Commission Joint session

The 51st session of the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Timber Committee, and the 26th session of the FAO European Forestry Commission were held jointly at FAO headquarters in Rome from 11 to 15 October 1993. The session was attended by representatives of 32 countries, the European Economic Community, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development and five international non-governmental organizations. A summary of discussions and conclusions to the major agenda items is presented below.

Global Forest Resources Assessment 1990 The participants reviewed the main findings and policy implications of the temperate zone Forest Resource Assessment 1990. They concluded that:

· the design of the inquiry should be expanded in future assessments to address more specific policy questions and the information needs of policy-makers; in particular, the implications of the increasing interest in non-wood forest functions must be taken into account;

· more information on the quality and location of forest resources (in addition to volume and area) should be included in future assessments;
· the oversupply of wood in many countries means new markets for wood, especially small-sized wood, must be developed urgently;

· forest owners should be encouraged to apply flexible, site-specific management strategies; 

· substantial financial resources need to be dedicated to forest management to meet the varied needs of society, a fact which should be taken into account by public policy-makers, while all possible steps should be taken to reduce costs and increase incomes; the particular needs of the Mediterranean forests should continue to be addressed, notably through the Mediterranean Forest Action Plan and the work of Silva Mediterranea;

· it is important to inform, educate and involve the public in forest sector decision-making.

Regarding follow-up to the 1990 assessment and preparations for the forthcoming assessment in 2000, the participants noted that one of the main findings of the 1990 assessment for the industrialized countries was the increasing importance of the forest's multiple functions (in addition to being a source of timber). They emphasized the need to introduce efficient indicators to measure the relevant factors, such as biodiversity and forest vitality. Delegates also acknowledged that better comparability of the data generated by forest resource assessments in the various regions of the world was of paramount importance and gave general support to securing agreement worldwide on concepts and classifications for global forest resources assessments. To ensure that these assessments take full account of policy-makers' information needs, they encouraged use of the FAO Committee on Forestry, the FAO regional forestry commissions and the ECE Timber Committee as sources of advice.

Implications of UNCED

The participants recalled that the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) had stressed the need for all countries to prepare national forestry action plans and that the implementation of UNCED follow-up programmes was the responsibility of national governments. They noted the decision of the Inter-agency Committee on Sustainable Development (IACSD) to assign FAO the "... responsibility as task manager on chapters relating to land, management of land resources and forests".

The delegates underlined the need for interregional consultations and exchanges of information, particularly through the FAO regional forestry commissions. They noted, however, that not all regional forestry commissions were at the same level of efficacy and that some might require further support and a strengthening of their activities.

Assistance to Central and East European countries in transition

The meeting participants were informed of the activities that had been carried out in accordance with the programme of assistance to the transitional economies in Central and Eastern Europe. Many countries stressed the importance of this activity and provided proposals and recommendations on its development. For example, the delegation of Slovakia confirmed its government's proposal to organize a workshop on institution-building, framework conditions and policy infrastructure for sustainable development of the forestry sector under market economy conditions.
As regards the general outline of the programme, the delegates felt that it should continue to address the specific areas where FAO/ECE has relevant experience - notably institutional changes, sustainable management and privatization -and that it should keep close to countries' needs and priorities, as expressed in the report of the informal meeting on strategies for assistance to countries in transition (Osslach, Austria, October 1992) which was endorsed by EFC. It was noted that the scope of the programme was effectively limited by the availability of resources.
The full report of the ECE Timber Committee and FAO European Forestry Commission Joint session may be obtained by writing to the Meetings Officer, Forestry Department, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

FAO Report, Assessed on  30 April 2016
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What to Eat for Breakfast to Gain Weight

Skipping meals will not help you gain weight. Forget breakfast, and you continue the six- to nine-hour fast that occurred while you slept. Take advantage of the morning meal to add extra calories so you can put on pounds to achieve a healthy weight. Increased serving sizes help you gain weight, but sneaky additions of calorie-dense foods also contribute healthy calories.

Hearty cereal, like granola, offers extra calories. Photo Credit karelnoppe/iStock/Getty Images.

How Breakfast Helps You Gain Weight

To gain weight, you must eat a surplus of calories. Determine your daily calorie burn rate by using an online calculator or consulting a dietitian. Then, add 250 to 500 calories to that number to target the number of calories you need per day to gain between 1/2 and 1 pound per week. You can eat the bulk of these additional calories at breakfast.

Getting more of just any calories, though, isn't the best approach. Muffins, sweetened cereal, pancakes and danishes are high in refined flours; sausage and bacon have lots of saturated fat and additives; artificial fruit punch, syrups and jam offer little nutrition but lots of added sugar. Even if you're underweight, you're still susceptible to the perils of a diet rich in added sugar, which includes the risk of heart disease, stroke and cancer. Instead, choose high-calorie breakfast foods that offer plenty of nutrition. Whole grains, healthy unsaturated fats, fresh fruits, dairy and quality protein should be the emphasis of weight-gain breakfasts.

Healthy Breakfast Proteins

Eggs are an obvious high-protein breakfast choice and, in moderation, are a quality protein choice. Each large egg contains about 80 calories and 6 grams of protein. Don't toss the yolk, either. It's the primary source of calories in the egg, and it's now known that its cholesterol doesn't increase your body's cholesterol levels, writes the Cleveland Clinic in 2015. Add more nutrients to the eggs by cooking them with chopped peppers, onions, tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms. These vegetables don't add a considerable amount of calories, so add an ounce of cheddar cheese, which contains 114 calories and another 7 grams of protein.

Consuming lots of processed meats, such as bacon, ham and sausage, increases your risk of developing cardiovascular disease and cancer, reported a study published in "Public Health Nutrition" in July 2015. If you like meat with breakfast, mix raw, lean, ground turkey with salt, pepper, paprika, dried oregano and fennel seeds. Saute as patties in hot olive oil until cooked through. A 4-ounce cooked patty contains 166 calories.

For a quick meal, spread peanut butter on top of whole-wheat toast or bagels for an added 191 calories and 7 grams of protein. Alternatively, blend a high-calorie smoothie, containing whey protein, fruit, nut butter and yogurt; pour it into a cup for an on-the-go breakfast, or sip it alongside one of the other options.

Choose Whole Grains and Dairy

Choose whole grains over refined grains. Whole grains contain fiber and naturally occurring, not added, vitamins and minerals. Oats, shredded wheat and oat bran are all cereal options. Cook hot cereal with milk, rather than water, to boost the calories. Top the cereal with dry milk powder for an extra 82 calories per 1/3 cup; 1 ounce of walnuts for 183 calories; or 1/2 cup of raisins for 215 calories. Make pancakes with 100 percent whole-wheat flour, and top with nut butter, honey and berries. Choose dense, multigrain breads and bagels, such as pumpernickel or whole-wheat, instead of white variations.

In addition to cheese and dry milk, use other dairy products, such as plain yogurt or milk, to boost your breakfast calories. Mix 1/2 cup of granola into a cup of plain yogurt for a side dish with 345 calories. Drink a glass or two of milk after you've finished eating or between meals; 1 cup of 2 percent milk contains 122 calories. Avoid drinking the milk during or before your meal, as it might make you too full to eat all the food.

High-Calorie Fruits

Fruit has about three times the calories of most vegetables per serving. Mix dried fruit into hot or cold cereal. The water has been evaporated, so it's more concentrated in calories than fresh. A cup of sliced banana served over cereal or pancakes, sandwiched with peanut butter or stirred into yogurt provides you with 134 calories. Fruit cups with no added sugar and 100 percent fruit juice offer portable options that boost your calorie intake without a lot of preparation.

Avocado -- with 234 calories per cup of sliced avocado flesh -- adds flavor, creaminess and calories to breakfast. Lay slices over scrambled eggs and cheese; blend cubes into a fruit smoothie; or spread mashed avocado over toast. Avocado is a source of healthy unsaturated fats as well as vitamin E, potassium and folate.

www.livestrong.com

Best of Christopher Schwarz (Digital Download)

THE JEFF MILLER WOODWORKING COLLECTION - ORDER NOW!

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We asked Christopher Schwarz what he thought was his best work for Popular Woodworking and Woodworking Magazine, and his response came as an initial surprise: "I really hope my best stuff is in the pipeline." But in hindsight, that's an excellent answer - for all of us, whether we are new to the craft or have years of experience in the shop, the goal should be to always strive for improvement, whether it's learning how to use a new tool (or an old tool), trying a new (or old) technique or building a new kind of project. 

These articles, first published in Popular Woodworking Magazine and Woodworking Magazine, exemplify Christopher's approach of taking a deep dive into woodworking history to learn old ways that are new to him, coupled with his love of hand tools and traditional techniques for working wood. And you'll learn from his experience as you read (and work) through the following five articles that are a sampling of some of what we think is the best and most useful work Christopher has published with the magazines during the past decade.

Dutch Tool Chest

This traditional chest provides great shop storage in a small footprint - and it's even better on the road. Plus, it's quick to build. 

Coarse, Medium & Fine

Handplanes aren't inherently slow, but the way we use them can make them that way. Explore this system that allows you to blend hand and power, and allows you to surface lumber faster and more accurately. 

Monticello's Stacking Bookcases

Learn how to cut mitered-shoulders dovetails and make a period-perfect plinth as you build the book boxes that held the foundation of the Library of Congress.

Build Furniture with a Hammer

Hammers and nails have developed the reputation of being second-class joinery. Don't believe it. The right nail, right hammer and right technique can be a revelation.

How to Saw

When it comes to sawing, practice won't help if you're practicing a poor method. These 10 rules and three tricks to successful sawing will soon have you sinking your teeth into perfect saw use.

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Fishing villages and community tree nurseries in Malawi

G.G. Mills

Graham G. Mills, currently a senior lecturer with the Sociology Department of the University of Swaziland, previously held a similar position with the Sociology Department of the University of Malawi.

This article reports on the forestry' needs of the fishing villages around Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta, describing an attempt by' the Malawi-German Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MAGFAD) Project to address local environmental degradation through the development of community forestry nurseries between 1989 and 1992.

Like many countries in Africa, Malawi is undergoing rapid deforestation and faces a fuelwood crisis. Tobacco is the country's major foreign currency earner and fish is its major animal protein source. Fuelwood is required to process both these vital products. An understanding of forestry needs, wood use and marketing and the social conditions of local communities is therefore essential for devising appropriate approaches to forestry, energy, environmental and social development in Malawi.

The people of Lake Chilwa and their environment

The Lake Chilwa ecosystem is in the southern region of Malawi on its eastern border with Mozambique. The ecosystem is characterized by shallow, typha-dominated swamps, sedge marsh and grass flood plains (Kalk, McLachlan and Howard-Williams, 1979). In the lake's greater catchment area, smallholder farming and fishing are the major economic activities for the approximately one million inhabitants (mainly of the Yao and Lomwe ethnic groups) making it one of Africa's most densely populated rural areas. The area produces between 15 000 and 30000 tonnes of fish per year, which is one-third of Malawi's total catch and about one-quarter of the annual national animal protein intake (Department of Economic Planning and Development [DEPD], 1987).

The fuelwood problem

Approximately 60 percent of the Lake Chilwa fish catch is wood-smoked. This has put heavy demands on local forests, not only for wood for smoking but for trees for boat building, especially the large trees used for traditional dugout canoes and for construction timber. A smoking and fuelwood survey in 1987 indicated that: more than 6 000 tonnes of hardwoods for fish smoking were being consumed annually; timber was being transported long distances, even imported from Mozambique; and the scarcity of wood had led to wide-scale illegal felling in forest reserves and other protected forest areas (Walter, 1988).

A typical fishing scene on the shore of Lake Chilwa - note the dugout canoes

For fish processors, the cost of wood was becoming as much a price-determining factor as fish itself. On the most important fish-landing beaches of Lake Chilwa, the price of hardwoods used in fish smoking increased by 100 percent between 1987 and 1989. Research on one major tracing beach in 1991 showed that 50 percent of wood used for smoking fish was collected illegally from forest reserves and transferred through complex marketing networks involving unrecorded cash payments.
The study also revealed that significant quantities of wood were being illegally shipped from Mozambique, despite a protocol between the two nations stating that wood shipments should be recorded and limited.

Wood price increases also affected local farmers who needed wood for fuel, construction poles, etc. Women, traditionally responsible for collecting fuelwood, were walking distances of up to 5 km per day and spending up to 18 hours per week collecting wood, while wood prices around the lake were much higher than elsewhere (Barnes, 1990). Although farmers often sold wood to fish processors, the consequences of this had not been thought through and the potential for earning a cash income through growing wood specifically for sale to the fishing industry had not been developed.

Project response

The Malawi-German Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MAGFAD) Project began in 1987 with an overall goal to ´'improve the utilization of local resources for fisheries and fish production". In 1989 it was decided that special emphasis should be given to tree planting in addition to a more economical use of wood by improved fish-smoking and canoe construction technology (Otte, 1990).
The first wood conservation intervention was the promotion of a plank canoe to replace the traditional bwatu, or dugout canoe (Fysom 1988). In making a dugout canoe, approximately 85 percent of the trunk of a mature hardwood is reduced to chips. The result is an irregularly shaped, heavy and unstable boat that is difficult to maintain. With the disappearance of big trees, fishermen had been reduced to smaller dugouts which were even more unstable and unable to reach the rougher waters in the middle of the lake. In addition, they were increasingly using species such as eucalyptus and Acacia albida which, when made into canoes, have a life span of only two to five years. The design of an appropriate stable, light-weight plank canoe utilizing less wood of a more durable quality, and the training and support of artisanal boat builders have led to a more effective use and conservation of forest resources (Mills, 1989).

The second intervention was the design and diffusion of an improved fish-smoking kiln. Traditional fish smoking is done over an open fire built in a shallow pit, with fish laid on wires. This method is inefficient in the use of wood and produces a product of irregular quality. The improved kiln utilizes 60 percent less wood to process the same quantity of product, while it is of higher quality and has a much longer storage life. Using the kiln is also safer than the traditional pit-roasting method because less smoke is inhaled. Kilns can be cheaply and easily constructed in the village from mud, baked brick, stone or portable flat iron sheets. More than 600 kilns have been constructed on 73 different beaches.

Despite the successful promotion of improved smoking kilns and plank canoes, the fact remained that large-scale deforestation had already taken place, fuelwood was still being rapidly consumed -albeit at a reduced rate - and no plan existed to ensure the sustainability of tree resources. Although there was some experience with private tree nurseries and woodlots, these mostly contained eucalyptus and pine seedlings made available by the Forestry Department and which were unsuitable for fish smoking.

Starting the community tree nursery programme

In 1989 the project approached community leaders' traditional authorities, farmers and fish processors with a proposal for a community-based participatory reforestation programme, designed to revitalize deforested areas, stabilize wood costs and provide an income-generating, low-labour and low-investment crop; in October 1989 the Project identified 12 villages with community tree nursery potential.

The first stage of the attempt to start a community forestry programme involved community meetings to discuss how members perceived their wood needs and to ascertain their willingness to participate in a community forestry project. Often, the idea of a participatory comrnunity tree nursery initially seemed so original that some people had trouble conceptualizing the idea. Particularly difficult to communicate was the concept that the nursery would belong to its members, not to the project organizers, and that they could therefore plant any species they wished.

A fishing with deforested hills showing In the background

Development theatre proved to be the most successful means for communicating this idea. Previous project activities focusing on bilharzia eradication and fish farming had employed a theatrical music group (Mr Malikebu's Band) as an extension aid, and this proved to be a popular and successful means of conveying information to large numbers of people at a level they could comprehend and appreciate.

Species selection

The project's community meetings also permitted the determination of criteria for selecting tree species. The most important criteria in species selection were related to fish smoking; to be appropriate, wood should be slow-burning and impart a good flavour. Albizia zimmermanni, Pericopsis angolensis and Acacia seyal were identified as the preferred species.

Growth rate was a second criterion. Villagers were familiar with the rapid-growing eucalyptus and would have preferred species with comparative growth rates in spite of the tact that they realized the preferred species were all slow-growing. Species that could be regularly coppiced were also seen as desirable. Another criterion was tolerance of waterlogging and high soil salinity. This did not affect all communities but was of decisive importance to some.

Project staff participating in the community discussions also suggested that selected species should be suitable for multiple uses, an idea that was not quickly understood. Some villagers were aware of species, for example Acacia albida, that helped maize to grow and were a source of animal fodder, but they did not understand broader concepts such as nitrogen-fixing roots as a substitute for fertilizer inputs, or green composting with nitrogen-rich foliage. Agroforestry concepts such as green banding gardens and alley cropping were new ideas and were often viewed with circumspection.

With the above criteria in mind, a number of indigenous and exotic species were selected: Albizia zimmermanni, Acacia albida, Afzelia quanzensis, Khaya nyassica (indigenous); and Albizia lebbeck, Gliricidia sepium, Senna siamea, Leucaena leucocephala, Cassia siamea, Terminalia catappa, Delonix regia (exotic).

Determining community and project responsibilities

The issue of responsibilities was something the project learned it had to clarify at the start of each effort. If tree nurseries were to be genuinely self-help activities, then project interventions, both in terms of material inputs and technical assistance, should be finite and ultimately aimed at community-level sustainability. It was agreed that the project should provide each club with a watering can, quality seeds, propagation sleeves and technical advice through regular visits by extension staff. The clubs would be responsible for preparing a fenced, sun-shaded nursery plot; the collection of fertile soil; preparation of the propagation sleeves; daily watering of the seedlings; and the organization of regular club meetings. As policy, it was agreed to advise that seedlings belonged to club members as a whole until National Tree Planting Day when they would be divided up among the membership on a basis agreed by a club meeting called for that purpose. After this, the seedlings would belong to the person concerned who would be able choose what to do with them including selling them. In some cases, this turned out to be a successful income-generating venture.

Use of seedlings

Decisions about exactly where seedlings should be planted and for what purpose were an important element in the overall effort. The project's usually accepted advice was that individual community members should be personally responsible for planting out and caring for their own seedlings, that they should be planted on their own, rather than on communal land, and that this should be done as far as possible according to agroforestry principles.

A tree nursery destroyed by flooding

Three basic planting out schemes were implemented. In the first approach, and particularly when Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia septum had been propagated, alley cropping with maize was recommended. In the second approach, participants used border plantings to delineate their land. For farmers with larger landholdings, in addition to border planting, the introduction of up to 12 trees per hectare in maize fields was recommended. This was a particularly valid approach for the propagation of Acacia albida. Important considerations for all planting schemes concerned discussing the usefulness of tree foliage as a potential source of animal fodder, when in the annual cycle to prune and how to use the foliage - if required as green manure. Finally, trees that were not particularly suited to agroforestry were recommended for planting near houses to provide shade or on areas of otherwise agriculturally unproductive, marginal land. This was particularly (he case for Delonix regia, Khaya nyassica and fruit-trees such as Carica papaya.

Challenges and constraints to success

The villagers never rejected the idea of a community tree nursery, but this did not mean automatic success. Failures in communications, community politics, a poor understanding of timber royalties and land rights, the importance of gender orientation, natural disasters and poor extension training were all interrelated constraints

One important lesson learned was that, although formal community protocols must be adhered to and local leaders taken on board, communications must be primarily and directly aimed at the immediate beneficiaries. For example, an important constraint was dispute over who owned the seedlings and watering can. In a number of cases, although it appeared that public agreement had been reached in favour of a formal club structure with elected officers and for the village head to provide a plot of land to belong to the club, soon after the departure of project personnel the watering can, seeds and propagation sleeves were appropriated by the head and the club disbanded. Whether or not some village leaders saw an independent organization such as a club as being a threat to traditional authority, or saw the situation as a means for personal gain, is an open question. Yet in some cases we learned that village heads had a fuelwood monopoly and so it was not in their immediate interest to support a community tree nursery.

Another common situation was that heads would often stand for election as club chairperson, in which case, within the context of traditional village society, members could not oppose them. This was unfortunate, as the village heads often made disastrous club chairpeople, especially at the beginning. However, subsequent monitoring during the two years after the first tree nurseries were introduced revealed an autonomous process of "normalization". It would seem that, as the novelty of the community tree nursery wore off and it became a routine feature of village life -self-sustaining and no longer receiving direct inputs from the project - the village heads, who initially either saw them as a threat or a source of personal gain, learned to assume responsibility for nursery success without having to be directly and personally involved. As successful village-based tree planning began to yield visible results, village heads as well as farmers and fishermen all became beneficiaries. The initial conflict between an essentially alien idea and the authority of the village head dissolved.
Tree royalties (Forestry Department licence fees) for felling indigenous trees proved a considerable constraint. This applied especially to species such as Khaya nyassica, Afzelia quanzensis and Acacia albida, which were much in demand. Based on past experience, farmers feared that the indigenous trees they planted would belong to or be taxed by the government in spite of the fact that Forestry Department licence fees do not apply to planted trees.

One important constraint to village-based tree planting was the prevailing land tenure system comprising government land, which may be leased; a very small percentage of private land; and customary land, which is the largest sector and is held in trust by the president of the country and distributed by chiefs and heads under traditional authority. More than 80 percent of families are smallholders with customary land usufruct, and the idea of permanent legally binding land tenure is an alien concept (Pachai, 1979). In southern Malawi, land is largely matrilineal and, should the spouse die or the couple separate, the man loses both land and tree rights. Similarly, families with no traditional roots in an area have no land or resource rights and have precarious tenure. With population density in excess of 200 per km²and 75 percent of families relying on less than l ha for total farm production, any tree-planting project had to be keenly sensitive of land rights and the right to trees planted by individuals, issues that had to be addressed in open public meetings at which chiefs made definitive land tenure and tree rights commitments to individual participants.

A community tree nursery

The role of women was an important issue. All project staff were male; typically, therefore, when communities were first addressed communications were primarily aimed at men, despite two important and initially unappreciated facts. First, being a matrilineal society, nearly all land "belonged" to women and, second, women carried out approximately 90 percent of farm labour and had traditional responsibility for household fuelwood management (Ngwira, 1987). Initially, at community meetings it was men who stood in prominence, negotiated with the project and, of course, secured for themselves whatever resources the project was distributing. It was only after the project was approached by groups of women wishing to establish separate women's tree nursery clubs and after the establishment of women's fish processing clubs, resulting from a separate women's income-generating project, that women were identified as the most important sector of the project's target group (Evans, 1991).

Extension training proved critical in maintaining club members' enthusiasm. While the use of development theatre and community meetings was important, this was only during the initial phase. Follow-up extension services and the development of positive interpersonal relations between extension staff and communities was crucial. The notions of knowledge sharing, equality in participation and community service were contrary to many extensionists' perception of their role, i.e. to tell the villagers what they should and should not do. Regular workshop training, performance evaluations, role play simulation and debates on community development theory proved important for the relative efficacy of individual extension workers.

Related to the issue of nursery maintenance is the importance of the sociological dynamics of the lakeside population. One important feature of the population was its geographical mobility: as lake levels change and fish catches vary, the population tends to relocate accordingly. Being close to where fish are caught or landed, or living where there is access to the lake through reed channels is an economic necessity and leads to large-scale population migrations, sometimes resulting in the abandonment of villages and free nurseries. Although project staff emphasized the need to locate tree nurseries close to a water supply, this point should be reconsidered against prospects of destruction by flash-flooding and rising lake levels.

Other less important causes of failure were disease, which in one case destroyed a complete nursery; termite and insect attack; and animal damage, resulting from chickens or goats penetrating the protective fencing and eating the seedlings.

Conclusion

Following the success of the 1989 pilot community tree nursery campaign, where 12 village tree nurseries were established, the project initiated a much larger campaign from 1990 to 1992 during which time nearly 120 community tree nurseries were established. The highest seedling propagation was at Nyanya, Chilimoni and the Northern Marsh which produced approximately 4 500 seedlings each, and the lowest propagation rate was just 33 seedlings. It is significant that the most successful clubs were also growing species not supplied or specifically recommended by the project. This was viewed by the project as an important aspect of the club's autonomous development, a clear sign that its participants were examining their own tree needs and making independent: decisions about what should be propagated.

Community tree nurseries have proved to be an important step towards developing a sustainable wood supply and rehabilitating the local environment around Lake Chilwa. However, such community activity cannot entirely prevent environmental degradation, nor will it guarantee all the wood needs of the lakeside communities -at least in the short term. It must be considered alongside other forestry and agricultural development efforts, and it illustrates the need and potential for intersectoral approaches and cooperation

Bibliography

Barnes, F. 1990. Population growth, wood fuels, and resource problems in sub-Saharan Africa. Industry and Energy Department working paper. Energy Series Paper No. 26. Washington, DC, World Bank.

DEPD. 1987. Statement of development policies 1987-1996. Lilongwe, Office of President and Cabinet, Government of Malawi.

Evans, J. 1991. Helping women help themselves: women's self-help activities. Zomba, Malawi, MAGFAD.

Forestry Research Institute. 1991 Statement. Lilongwe. Malawi, Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources.

Fyson, J. 1988. An analysis of boat-building requirements for the canoe fishing of Lake Chilwa, Malawi. Zomba, Malawi, GTZ.

Kalk, M., McLachlan, A.J. & Howard-Williams, C., eds. 1979. Lake Chilwa: studies of change in a tropical ecosystem. The Hague, Dr W. Junk Publ.

Llebnow, G. 1989. Malawi: demonstration for self help. In Community water development. London, ITP.

Ludaka, G. 1991. Socio-economic impact assessment of the Namasalima-Nkuba road on the wood business and fishing industry at Nkuba fish landing site. Research Paper (SOC 410). Zomba, Sociology Department, University of Malawi.
Mills, G.G. 1989. Farewell to Lake Chilwa's dugout canoes. Malawi Daily Times, 3 November.
Ngwira, N. 1987. Effectiveness of agricultural extension services in reaching rural women with timely and appropriate agricultural information. Zomba, Malawi, Centre for Social Research.
Otte, G. 1990. Project implementation progress report. Zomba, Malawi. MAGFAD.
Pachai, B. 1979. The influence of history on Lake Chilwa and its people. In M. Kalk, A.J. McLachlan & C. Howard-Williams, eds. Lake Chilwa: studies of change in a tropical ecosystem. The Hague, Dr W. Junk Publ.

Unesco. 1979. Socio-political aspects of the palaver in some African countries. Paris.
Walter, G. 1988. Supply, marketing and consumption of fish-intakes of other basic foodstuff - demand for smoking and fuelwood in the target area of the Malawi-German Fisheries and Aquaculture Development Project. Konstanz, Germany, GTZ.

Wilson, J.G. 1991. Enhanced women's participation in fisheries development in Malawi. In Gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture: including proceedings of the Workshop on Enhanced Women's Participation in Fisheries Development. Harare, Zimbabwe, SIDA/FAO

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Back to the Basics: Hand-tool Essentials

THE JEFF MILLER WOODWORKING COLLECTION  -  ORDER NOW !

 (Digital Download)

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In this PDF mini-book from the editors of Popular Woodworking Magazine you’ll discover the perfect collection of articles to improve your hand skills; it’s the best hand tool instruction and information for building a solid woodworking foundation. And there is a gorgeous project included to test your new expertise.

Whether you’re a beginner just getting started in woodworking or and experienced veteran, you’ll learn how to accurately cut a board, plane and smooth a surface and lay out your projects when working wood. Christopher Schwarz shares his knowledge of the bench plane system including what’s important and what to ignore, Robert W. Lang discusses layout tools that work and which tools are worth your investment and Adam Cherubini walks you through basic chisel techniques first described three centuries ago, but still in use today.

This collection covers the “must know” information about handplanes, saws, hammers, layout tools and chisels.

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Sprint Intervals vs. Jogging to Improve Oxygen Uptake

Performing sprint intervals provides an effective workout, as does simply jogging steadily. However, each can have significantly different impacts on your body and fitness level. Which workout individuals choose to use depends on their current fitness level, as well as their training goals.

A man and woman are jogging. Photo Credit Steve Mason/Photodisc/Getty Images.

HIIT Training

High intensity interval training, also known as HIIT training, has become increasingly popular during recent years. Many create this type of routine by blending jogging with sprinting/walking intervals, which is an effective way to burn the maximum amount of calories. While the benefits of HIIT training are undeniable, some old-fashioned joggers and those new to exercise are unaware of the differences between the two. One of the most prominent differences between sprinting and jogging is found in the two's respective oxygen uptake.

Oxygen

Oxygen uptake is important when exercising, especially for people who are training for a specific event or trying to lose weight. A sufficient oxygen supply helps to increase performance, prevent dizziness and raise fat-burning potential. Sprint interval training helps to increase EPOC, or excess post-exercise oxygen consumption, which helps to dramatically accelerate results, according to San Diego State University. While jogging also can increase oxygen uptake somewhat, it does not do so nearly as much as interval training.

Differences

The effects of sprint intervals and jogging on the body differ in other respects as well. The body's goal is to be as efficient as possible, which means it eventually gets used to a certain form of exercise, leading to the possibility of an eventual plateau in results. Interval training helps keep the body guessing and reduces the chance of reaching a plateau. Jogging, on the other hand, is usually done at a constant speed. While jogging still burns a fairly decent amount of calories, mixing jogging and sprinting can lead to improved results over a longer period of time.

Impact

At times, the effectiveness of interval training makes it initially unattractive. Sprint intervals can quickly fatigue a person, ultimately reducing the amount of calories burned and oxygen consumed. This leads to limited training and weight loss results for individuals who are unused to intense training levels. Jogging, on the other hand, can be done for longer periods of time without experiencing the same level of fatigue. As your body becomes more used to the strain of working out, you will be able to put yourself through more challenging workouts -- of both sprint intervals and long-term jogging.

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Workholding Clever Tricks, Tools & Techniques for Securing Your Work

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You can't work the wood if the wood won't stay in place. Simple, right?

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Robert W. Lang dives into the theory and practice of holdfasts, testing several models and showing you what you need to look for when buying this venerable workholding device. Bob Rozaieski looks back in history to show you how workholding was done by woodworkers of the past.

You'll find more articles, books and videos on workholding and workbenches at ShopWoodworking.com.

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Biotechnology in forest tree improvement: research directions and priorities

R.J. Haines

Russell J. Haines is with the Forest Research Centre of the Queensland Department of Forestry in Gympie, Australia. He was the recipient of the FAO Andre Mayer Research Fellowship in 1992.

Cultured nodes and axilliary meristems of Araucaria cunninghamii, a valuable plantation conifer
A rooted axillary shoot of Araucaria cunninghamii

A summary of current research into biotechnology applications for forest tree improvement and recommendations for the prioritization of research objectives in the sector: This article is based on a longer work soon to be published as an FAO Forestry Paper.

In no other field of scientific investigation today are such rapid advances being made as in plant biotechnology. Biotechnology comprises any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro-organisms for specific uses. The public imagination has been caught by such highly publicized developments as the tomato that can be frozen and the cassava and other agricultural crops that have been genetically engineered for insect and virus resistance, and which are now in or near commercial release.

The potential benefits of plant biotechnology in forestry are perhaps even greater than in agriculture because of the possibility of gaining time in certain tree improvement processes. The challenges facing foresters regarding production or outturn, whether of wood or other products, are no less urgent than those facing agriculturists.

Tree improvement research falls into two categories: supportive research, e.g. the collection of data on reproductive biology and genetics necessary to support effective breeding; and strategic research, aimed at the development of better breeding methods. Many strategic research projects concerning biotechnology have been initiated, in the opinion of some (e.g. Sedgley and Griffin, 1989) at the expense of other urgently required tree improvement activities. Clearly, the careful prioritization of research objectives is important and biotechnologies should only be used where there is an intimate basic knowledge of the species being experimented. Nonetheless, if basic biological information and knowledge are available and if sound tree improvement programmes are in place, biotechnology can be a powerful tool. This analysis is directed towards the definition of important biotechnological research priorities in forest tree improvement.

Tree improvement priorities

The general objective of a genetic improvement programme should be the sustainable management of genetic variation to produce, identify and multiply for the operational planting of well-adapted genotypes of the desired quality. Typically, this incorporates:

· the establishment of initial populations, including species and provenance testing, as well as the development of breeding and gene conservation populations;· population improvement, frequently including recurrent cycles of selection and recombination;
· the derivation and multiplication of strains to be used operationally.

In principle, the above applies to both industrial (i.e. biologically well-known species planted on a large scale) and non-industrial species, although the practicalities differ to some extent. The current status of tree improvement and associated research trends have recently been reviewed (FAO, in press; Kanowski, 1993). Significant genetic gains are being achieved in breeding programmes for established industrial species, and the broadening of such efforts will be important. Major limitations to rapid improvement with most of the established industrial species are:

Tissue cultures in an incubation cabinet

· long generation intervals, related to poor juvenile-mature correlations (i.e. that the characteristics of young trees are not necessarily accurate indicators of those found in mature individuals) and the long juvenile phase with respect to flowering;· the low effectiveness of selection for many characters as a result of low heritability or difficulties in assessment;
· through the use of open-pollinated orchards, the exploitation of only a part of the genetic variation available.

Major research priorities for established industrial species should be the broader development of methods for the propagation of full-sib families (i.e. multiple examples from a single, known male-female pair) or clones, the development of methods for early and more accurate selection and the promotion of precocious flowering. To utilize a broader range of sites, and to supply products currently provided by harvesting in natural forests, a significant proportion of new plantation areas will probably be established with tropical species that are not widely used at present. Some may be very amenable to improvement, while others present problems, e.g. flowering and seed problems and susceptibility to insects and disease. The distribution and potential uses of many species are not well known and gene pools are probably under threat. The implementation of improvement programmes will be an important priority for these species. The testing of potentially useful species, the characterization of mating systems, provenance collection, the establishment of trials on different sites, the implementation of gene conservation measures and the commencement of other breeding activities pose large challenges.

Several non-industrial taxa are highly variable and feature early and prolific flowering - conducive to very rapid improvement by traditional means. The biological features of many potentially valuable non-industrial species, however, remain largely unknown. Some gene pools are under threat. Although selection work has been undertaken in a few programmes, most non-industrial species remain at the species-testing stage. Although the genetic improvement of non-industrial species is similar in principle to that of industrial trees, and some similar limitations apply, special difficulties are presented by:

· the need to establish plantings on a wide range of sites, many of which are marginal or problematic;
· the multiplicity of selection criteria (e.g. fuelwood or mulching quality!;
· the variability of selection criteria from one grower to the next;
· the low value of forest products in some systems; and
· the difficulty of transferring breeding results to operational plantings, e.g. where growers have a strong economic preference for raising their own planting stock.

A rejuvenated shoot from an old sequoia tree

The work involved even in selecting the most promising species is formidable and, for reasons presented above, improvement beyond species and provenance testing may be difficult to justify for many non-industrial trees. Major priorities for the improvement of non-industrial species are likely to be taxonomic studies of variation; species and provenance testing; the assessment of reproductive features; and conservation activities.
As pointed out by Kanowski (1993), tree improvement does not receive adequate financial or human resource inputs. This is especially true in developing countries where funding provided through national, regional, bilateral and international programmes is not sufficient to conduct the essential activities properly. The problems are further compounded by inadequate levels of training and facilities in most areas. For the non-industrial species in particular, it is these resource limitations and the variability in user requirements, rather than biological constraints' that constitute the major impediments to rapid improvement.

Biotechnologies and tree improvement

The author has reviewed the current status of biotechnology, and applications in tree improvement in detail in a work soon to be published (FAO, in press). The following paragraphs summarize the most important biotechnologies.

Cryopreservation and in vitro storage

This comprises the maintenance of cells, tissues or organs in cultures where growth is slowed (e.g. by the reduction of light, temperature or nutrients) or suspended (by immersion in liquid nitrogen). Many technical difficulties are involved, particularly in the subsequent regeneration of plants from the cultures, but recent results are generally encouraging. Regeneration from cryopreserved tissues has been induced for more than 70 plant species, including coconut, rubber, cocoa and coffee, and for several forest tree species. These results have led to hopes that the technologies may have a number of applications in tree improvement.

Gene conservation. Although increasingly used for the storage of threatened germplasm of agricultural species (Engelmann, 1991), in vitro storage and cryo-preservation have little to offer for this purpose with regard to forest trees. Gene pools of most of the established industrial species are reasonably well preserved in stands, both in situ and ex situ, and in seed stores. Undoubtedly, the gene pool of many tree species is threatened, particularly among the tropical hardwoods and non-industrial species. Distributions of these species are poorly known, as are their biological characteristics. Major impediments to the preservation of forest tree germplasm are: the inadequacy of resources for the survey and collection work that would be required before any germplasm could be stored; and the unreliability of many existing seed storage facilities. Even for the recalcitrant (hard-to-store) species, priority would be better directed to the establishment of ex situ plantings, which should facilitate urgently needed evaluations of the material. In the longer term, cryo-preservation and in vitro storage may have some application as a backup conservation strategy, but only for populations of well-surveyed, recalcitrant species.

Maintenance of juvenility. Suspension of the growth processes also implies the maintenance of the maturation state previously attained in the tissues - without any of the uncertainty associated with alternative strategies such as long-term hedging or serial propagation. Cryopreservation therefore warrants much more attention as a means of maintaining juvenility during simultaneous clonal testing and thus capturing genetic gains offered by clonal forestry with industrial species. The technology is therefore applicable mainly in cases where good breeding programmes are in place, where clonal forestry is a realistic goal and where "rejuvenation" is difficult -particularly for the conifers.

Use of molecular markers

The use of molecular markers involves the examination, using sophisticated biochemical techniques, of variations in cellular molecules such as DNA and proteins. As an alternative to traditionally measured features such as vigour, stem quality and various morphological aspects, molecular markers offer the advantages of being unaffected by the environment or the developmental stage of the plant while also being very numerous. These characteristics have led to a number of potential applications in tree improvement.

Genetic fingerprinting. The inherent characteristics of molecular markers render them much more useful than morphological traits in establishing the identity of a particular tree or tracing its genetic relationship to other trees. For example, using molecular markers, it was possible to identify each of 39 peach cultivars individually (Ballard et al., 1992). Markers have important immediate applications in supportive research for advanced breeding programmes with industrial species mainly for quality control, e.g. checking clonal identification, orchard contamination and within-orchard mating patterns by "fingerprinting". Markers also have important immediate applications in supportive research for tropical hardwoods and non-industrial species, in particular for essential taxonomic studies and investigations of mating systems.

Quantification of genetic variation. Molecular markers are potentially more useful for quantifying genetic variation than are traits such as vigour and stem form, for which environmentally induced variation is frequently a confounding factor (i.e. it is not clear if traits are produced genetically or by external factors). Markers have been used to compare within- and inter-population variation in several tree species (Muller-Starck, Baradat and Bergmann, 1992). The quantification of genetic variation to aid in sampling strategies for the development of gene conservation and breeding populations of new industrial and non-industrial species is a potentially useful application of molecular markers. Markers may, however, provide underestimates of genetic variation with respect to traits (e.g. vigour and stem quality) that are more subject to evolutionary pressures and, therefore, will need to be used with caution.

Marker-assisted selection. This refers to indirect selection on the basis of markers shown to be associated with commercially important genes. Unaffected by the environment or developmental stage, markers offer the possibility of highly effective and early selection, long the hope of forest tree breeders (e.g. selection for wood quality at the young seedling stage). Although the possibilities are very attractive, there are limitations that will prohibit application in the short or medium term (Strauss, Lande and Namkoong, 1992): i) marker analysis is currently too expensive to permit the screening of large populations of seedlings; ii) associations between markers and economically important traits have to be established separately for different families, thus, even when cheaper markers are available, marker-assisted selection will apply mainly to advanced and sophisticated breeding programmes - those for which the creation and maintenance of the appropriate pedigree structures can be afforded and where clonal forestry is achievable. For most species, current resources would be far better directed towards moving breeding programmes to this stage of advancement, rather than to the development of marker-assisted selection.

The major current value of molecular markers lies in long-term strategic research; marker studies are making great contributions to advances in the understanding of basic genetic mechanisms and genome organization at the molecular level. An important emphasis of this work in coming years will be the study of quantitative traits of forest trees, of which a few model species will receive most attention, for example loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

Genetic engineering

This comprises the insertion of novel genes into a plant or else the modification of existing genes through manipulation of the DNA molecule. Crops to which genes for insect, virus and selected herbicide resistance has been added are being or are near to being applied commercially. A tree crop into which these genes have been inserted is the poplar. Many projects are under way for forest trees, the reduction of lignin biosynthesis, for instance, but numerous technical difficulties remain to be solved. The insertion of currently available insect- or herbicide-resistant genes into a new species would constitute a major research undertaking, and successful application would be dependent on being able to regenerate from the transformed cells. The manipulation of more complex traits would be an even more formidable undertaking and much research remains to be done. An often overlooked research component is the extensive testing that would be required before a responsible recommendation for the large-scale deployment of transgenic plants could be made. Research projects of this type are necessarily intensive and must be regarded as long-term with only a modest expectation of success.

Insect resistance is of potential value, for example in poplars and some tropical hardwoods. However, the work involved in introducing several different resistance genes, sufficient to ensure that insects do not acquire tolerance during the rotation, should not be underestimated. The reduction of lignin biosynthesis is a very valuable objective for the pulp species. The introduction of herbicide-tolerant genes is of some interest but, in many programmes, the advantage of practicing unguarded herbicide applications may not be sufficient to pay for the research programme. Cold-tolerant genes are likely to be of some commercial value for many species, in particular the eucalypts. Much remains to be done, however, to establish that sufficient tolerance can be conferred using antifreeze proteins and to extend the work to tree species.

Prevention of the escape of genes into wild populations is likely to become an important concern, and sterility should be an early target of genetic engineering work with forest tree species. The major factor limiting application of genetic engineering in forest trees is the state of knowledge of molecular control of the traits that are of most interest - those relating to growth, adaptation and stem and wood quality. Genetic engineering of these traits remains a distant prospect.
It is important that genetically engineered genotypes be of high quality with respect to other traits as well. The clonal test is the most logical basis for the integration of genetic engineering into traditional tree improvement programmes. For these reasons, genetic engineering is most appropriately conducted with species for which breeding programmes are advanced and clonal forestry can be realistically contemplated. Research on this subject should not assume a high priority with species for which natural variation available within the taxon remains poorly investigated

Micropropagation

This refers to in vitro plant propagation methods. The principal approaches are axillary budding (actually a miniaturization of propagation with cuttings): the induction of adventitious buds on non-meristematic tissue (i.e. inducing a shoot where one would not normally develop): and somatic embryogenesis (where individual cultured cells or small groups of cells undergo development resembling that of the zygotic embryo). As an alternative to other vegetative propagation methods, the attraction of micropropagation lies in its ability to multiply elite clonal material very rapidly. More than 1 000 plant species have been micropropagated, including more than 100 forest tree species (Bajaj. 1991; Thorpe, Harry and Kumar, 1991). Successful experimental practices probably could be developed for most tree species.

For most industrial forest plantation species, the costs of planting stock and insufficient data regarding field performance remain major obstacles to be overcome before a broader use of micropropagules as direct planting stock may be contemplated (Haines, 1992). Micropropagation has an immediate application, however, in integrated clonal propagation systems featuring the commercial planting of cuttings harvested from rapidly multiplied, micropropagated stool plants of the selected clones. This approach is of value only in very advanced breeding programmes incorporating the identification of outstanding clones currently only a few programmes are at this level. Appropriate integration into breeding programmes is essential. Where clonal testing on a relatively large scale is possible and affordable, the current applicability of techniques mainly to juvenile material is not necessarily an impediment to the capture of good gains through clonal forestry. This conclusion, however, is dependent on the ability to store juvenile material for the period of a clonal test. Genetic variation in response, often substantial, is not likely to be a major problem where clonal testing can be preceded by screening for responsive genotypes, although demonstrating the absence of adverse correlations with economic traits is important. Breeding programmes new industrial species and non-industrials are not sufficiently advanced to warrant much use of micropropagation in the short term.

Field testing of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) tissue culture plants and Dings of the same family. Plantlets display slightly more mature features

Micropropagation may have a wider application in the multiplication of stool plants of industrial species as breeding programmes become more advanced and other limitations to clonal forestry (e.g. maturation problems) are overcome. For some non-industrial tree species, micropropagation may ultimately have a role in the multiplication of selected varieties prior to release. Development of simple micropropagation techniques for those species for which such methods are not already available is therefore a useful research objective but should not take priority over issues such as advancement of the breeding programme.

Work done with some crop species indicates the possibility of encapsulating somatic embryos to form artificial seeds which can then be handled like conventional seeds. With considerable research, developments in this area may overcome the constraint of planting stock costs (discussed above) and enable the direct use of such propagules in forest plantation establishment. For industrial species, therefore, the development of these technologies is a useful long-term research objective but one which is best pursued with one or two model species, for example Picea abies and Pinus taeda.

In vitro control of the maturation state

There have been several reports of cultured mature buds displaying a reversion to a more juvenile state in response to the culture techniques and conditions. This has led to hopes that in vitro rejuvenation may be the solution to the poor rooting and vigour displayed by shoots collected from trees of selectable age for many forest plantation species. The major limitation to this approach is that there is little evidence of complete, permanent and reliable rejuvenation. In fact, some studies have clearly demonstrated the effect to be a temporary response to the culture condition. Further empirical work with this objective has a low probability of success. An understanding of the molecular basis of maturation (e.g. Hutchison and Greenwood, 1991) is much more likely to lead to practical manipulation, but this work is in its infancy and the reversal or promotion of maturation to precise levels remains a distant prospect.
For clonal forestry with industrial species, the maintenance of juvenility is about as useful as rejuvenation for many purposes (Haines, 1992) and it is probably able to be achieved using technologies such as cryopreservation or coppicing. Nevertheless, a more fundamental control of the maturation state remains one of the most valuable objectives of long-term strategic research in forest tree improvement with industrial species. Rejuvenation is most applicable to efforts where good breeding programmes are in place and where other limitations to clonal forestry do not exist.

Research Priorities

Supportive research

The preceding analysis suggests that the short-term possibilities for applying biotechnology in supportive research in forestry are:

· the use of molecular markers for quality control in advanced breeding programmes with established industrial species, e.g. for checking clonal identification, orchard contamination and within-orchard mating patterns by fingerprinting;· the use of markers in essential taxonomic studies and investigations of mating systems;
· the use of markers for the quantification of genetic variation to aid in the design of sampling strategies for gene conservation and breeding population collections for breeding programmes with "new" industrial and non-industrial species.

Strategic Research

Strategic research priorities relating to the application of biotechnology in tree improvement can be grouped into three broad areas:
Long-term generic research. This is most efficient if conducted collaboratively with a small number of model species, thus avoiding the diffusion of resources and efforts. High priority should be accorded to:

· genetic engineering for sterility - this will underlie many of the eventual applications of genetic engineering;· the use of molecular markers and DNA transformation techniques to investigate genetic processes at the molecular level, in particular those relating to complex traits such as growth, adaptation and stem and wood quality, is of particular relevance to industrial species, but will also pave the way for the application of biotechnology to non-industrial trees;
· molecular studies of the maturation state for industrial plantation species.

A somewhat lower priority should be given to the development of somatic embryogenesis in combination with artificial seed technology as an inexpensive method of clonal propagation.
Long-term specific research. Two high priority areas are:

· genetic engineering of useful traits, including lignin reduction in pulp species; cold tolerance, particularly in eucalypts; and insect resistance, e.g. in poplars and perhaps Meliaceae (when appropriate breeding programmes are in place). Transformation with appropriate genes (the introduction of several genes in the case of insect resistance) may be achieved within the short to medium term (the next five to ten years) but must be followed by perhaps ten years of field testing before responsible commercial deployment may be recommended;· marker-assisted selection, for species where breeding is advanced and where the creation and maintenance of the appropriate population structures are feasible and affordable - it will probably be ten years before this is possible on an operational scale.

Short- to medium-term research. Areas that warrant attention include:

· the examination of genetic correlations between regenerative competence and commercially important field traits (high priority);· the development of cryopreservation methods as a means of maintaining juvenility in advanced breeding programmes with industrial species (high priority);
· the development of cryopreservation as a backup measure for gene conservation in proven species for which breeding programmes are in existence and for which seed recalcitrance has been demonstrated (moderate priority);
· the development of simple micropropagation techniques for species where none is yet available (low to moderate priority).

Conclusion

Modern biotechnology should be perceived as a new group of tools or means to be used as adjuncts or complements to conventional technologies in solving problems and meeting the needs of human beings. A balance should be maintained between modern biotechnological and conventional research, and the development and application of biotechnology should be driven by needs and not by technological capability. The use of modern biotechnologies should be promoted for more efficient solutions to problems already on the agenda and within the framework of the existing priorities of individual countries. Thus, the funding of biotechnological research initiatives cannot and must not be at the expense of conventional genetic improvement programmes.

Bibliography

Bajaj, Y.P.S. 1991. Automated micropropagation for en masse production of plants. In Y.P.S. Bajaj, ed. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry 17 High-tech and micropropagation 1, p. 3- 16. Berlin, Springer Verlag.
Ballard, R.E., He, G., Abott, A.G., Mink, G. & Belthoff, L.E. 1992 Molecular biology of forest trees. DNA fingerprinting of Prunus varieties using low copy sequence probes. Proc. IUFRO Working Party S2.04.06 Workshop. Carcans-Maubuisson France. INRA.
Engelmann, F. 1991. In vitro conservation of tropical plant germplasm - a review. Euphytica, 57: 227-243.
FAO. The role of biotechnology in forest tree improvement, with particular reference to developing countries. FAO Forestry Paper No. 118. (in press)
Haines, R.J. 1992. Mass production technology for genetically improved, fast growing forest tree species. Mass propagation by cuttings, biotechnologies, and the capture of genetic gain. Paper presented at IUFRO symposium. Bordeaux, France.
Hutchison, K.W. & Greenwood, M.S. 1991. Molecular approaches to gene expression during conifer development and maturation. Ecol. Manage.. 43: 273-286.
Kanowski, P.J. 1993. Forest genetics and tree breeding. Plant Breed. Abstr., 63: 717-726.
Mather, A. 1990. Global forest resources. London Belhaven.
Moran, G.F. 1992. Patterns of genetic diversity in Australian tree species. New Forests. 6: 49-66.
Muller-Starck, G., Baradat, P. & Bergmann, F. 1992. Genetic variation within European tree species. New Forests 6: 23-47.
Sedgley, M. & Griffin, A.R. 1989. Sexual reproduction of tree crops. London. Academic.
Strauss, S.H., Lande, R. & Namkoong, G. 1992. Limitations of molecular-marker-aided selection in forest tree breeding. Can. For. Res., 22: 1050-1061.
Thorpe, T.A., Harry, I.S. & Kumar, P.P. 1991. Application of micropropagation to forestry. In P.C. Debergh & P.H. Zimmerman, eds. Micropropagation: technology and application. Dordrecht, the Netherlands Kluwer Academic.
Weedon, N.F. 1989. Applications of isozymes in plant breeding. Plant Breed Rev., 6: 11-54.

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