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Tuesday, 13 June 2017

Serviceability-related reliability for mainshock-damaged reinforced concrete piers considering the aftershock-induced seismic hazards

Author
Chien-Kuo Chiu (ckchiu@mail.ntust.edu.tw) and Charles Poegoeh Arista
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Abstract: Abstract After the mainshock of an earthquake, the major concerns are their serviceability of damaged structures or safety when subjected aftershocks. How to choose the appropriate maintenance actions for damaged structures in their limited post-mainshock service periods is important. To consider the effect of aftershock events on the deterioration of structural performance, reduction factors of seismic capacity for specified damage states based on experimental data are used in the reliability analysis. Additionally, this work proposes an integral method that can analyze the time-dependent capacity of a mainshock-damaged RC pier and simulate aftershock events within a specified period after the mainshock of an earthquake, while at the same time considering cumulative damage induced by ground motions. To determine the post-mainshock service period for a mainshock-damaged RC pier located in a region with high seismic hazard induced by the aftershock, the proposed assessment method is applied to derive its reliability function of a specified damage state. Finally, the proposed procedure for the reliability function for a specified limit state is then applied to a case study of typical RC piers in Taiwan to demonstrate its applicability.
Keywords: Reliability; Aftershock; Reduction factor; Reinforced concrete; Cumulative damage (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2017
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Comparison of the performance of power law and probability distributions in the frequency analysis of flood in Dez Basin, Iran

Author
Farshad Ahmadi, Feridon Radmaneh, Gholam Ali Parham and Rasoul Mirabbasi (mirabbasi_r@yahoo.com)
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Abstract: Abstract Determination of the return period of design flood depends on the nature of the project and the consequences of the flood and is based on economic criteria, human casualties, and hydrological factors. Underestimation of flood might result in casualties and economic damages, while the overestimation leads to capital waste. Therefore, in this research, the flood frequency analysis of Dez Basin, Iran was conducted within the period of 1956–2012 using power law approach together with ordinary distributions, including normal, log normal, Pearson type III, exponential, gamma, generalized extreme value, Nakagami, Rayleigh, logistic, generalized logistic, generalized Pareto, and Weibull distributions. The power law comes from the fractal nature of earth science phenomena such as precipitation and runoff. Accordingly, in this research the partial duration flood series of five hydrometric stations in Dez Basin were extracted using power law with the intervals of 7, 14, 30, and 60 days and then compared with the annual maxima. The results indicated that the annual maxima were not suitable for frequency analysis of the flood in Dez Basin, and the 30-day partial duration series obtained from the power law has a better correspondence with the flow and properties of the Dez Basin. The independence and stationarity of the 30-day partial duration series were examined by Wald–Wolfowitz test, confirming the independence of the considered series. Next, the power distribution and the typical statistical distributions were fitted onto the data of the flood in Dez Basin, with the performance of each distribution being investigated using normalized root-mean-square error and Nash–Sutcliffe criteria. The results revealed that in the SDZ and TPB stations, power distribution had a better performance than other considered distributions. Moreover, in the SDS, TPS, and TZ stations the power distribution stood in the second rank in terms of the best distribution. As the performance of power distribution in the estimation of the flood in Dez Basin has been very satisfactory and calculation of its parameters and its application is easier than ordinary probability distributions, thus it can be suggested as the superior distribution for flood frequency analysis in Dez Basin.
Keywords: Flood; Partial series; Frequency analysis; Probability distribution; Power law (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2017
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Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards is currently edited by Thomas Glade, Tad S. Murty and Vladimír Schenk
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A geospatial framework to estimate depth of scour under buildings due to storm surge in coastal areas

Author
Mariamawit Borga, Burak F. Tanyu (btanyu@gmu.edu), Celso M. Ferreira (cferrei3@gmu.edu), Juan L. Garzon and Michael Onufrychuk
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Abstract: Abstract Hurricanes and tropical storms represent one of the major hazards in coastal communities. Storm surge generated by strong winds and low pressure from these systems have the potential to bring extensive flooding in coastal areas. In many cases, the damage caused by the storm surge may exceed the damage from the wind resulting in the total collapse of buildings. Therefore, in coastal areas, one of the sources for major structural damage could be due to scour, where the soil below the building that serves as the foundation is swept away by the movement of the water. The existing methodologies to forecast hurricane flood damage do not differentiate between the different damage mechanisms (e.g., inundation vs. scour). Currently, there are no tools available that predominantly focus on forecasting scour-related damage for buildings. Such a tool could provide significant advantages for planning and/or preparing emergency responses. Therefore, the focus of this study was to develop a methodology to predict possible scour depth due to hurricane storm surges using an automated ArcGIS tool that incorporates the expected hurricane conditions (flow depth, velocity, and flood duration), site-specific building information, and the associated soil types for the foundation. A case study from Monmouth County (NJ), where the scour damages from 2012 Hurricane Sandy were recorded after the storm, was used to evaluate the accuracy of the developed forecasting tool and to relate the scour depth to potential scour damage. The results indicate that the developed tool provides relatively consistent results with the field observations.
Keywords: Scour depth; ArcGIS framework; Storm surge; Building scour; Hurricane Sandy (search for similar items in EconPapers)
Date: 2017
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Hydrological impacts of land use–land cover change and detention basins on urban flood hazard: a case study of Poisar River basin, Mumbai, India

Author
P. E. Zope, T. I. Eldho (eldho@civil.iitb.ac.in) and V. Jothiprakash
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Abstract: Abstract Flooding in urban area is a major natural hazard causing loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. The major causes of urban floods include increase in precipitation due to climate change effect, drastic change in land use–land cover (LULC) and related hydrological impacts. In this study, the change in LULC between the years 1966 and 2009 is estimated from the toposheets and satellite images for the catchment of Poisar River in Mumbai, India. The delineated catchment area of the Poisar River is 20.19 km2. For the study area, there is an increase in built-up area from 16.64 to 44.08% and reduction in open space from 43.09 to 7.38% with reference to total catchment area between the years 1966 and 2009. For the flood assessment, an integrated approach of Hydrological Engineering Centre-Hydrological Modeling System (HEC-HMS), HEC-GeoHMS and HEC-River analysis system (HEC-RAS) with HEC-GeoRAS has been used. These models are integrated with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing data to develop a regional model for the estimation of flood plain extent and flood hazard analysis. The impact of LULC change and effects of detention ponds on surface runoff as well as flood plain extent for different return periods have been analyzed, and flood plain maps are developed. From the analysis, it is observed that there is an increase in peak discharge from 2.6 to 20.9% for LULC change between the years 1966 and 2009 for the return periods of 200, 100, 50, 25, 10 and 2 years. For the LULC of year 2009, there is a decrease in peak discharge from 10.7% for 2-year return period to 34.5% for 200-year return period due to provision of detention ponds. There is also an increase in flood plain extent from 14.22 to 42.5% for return periods of 10, 25, 50 and 100 years for LULC change between the year 1966 and year 2009. There is decrease in flood extent from 4.5% for 25-year return period to 7.7% for 100-year return period and decrease in total flood hazard area by 14.9% due to provisions of detention pond for LULC of year 2009. The results indicate that for low return period rainfall events, the hydrological impacts are higher due to geographic characteristics of the region. The provision of detention ponds reduces the peak discharge as well as the extent of the flooded area, flood depth and flood hazard considerably. The flood plain maps and flood hazard maps generated in this study can be used by the Municipal Corporation for flood disaster and mitigation planning. The integration of available software models with GIS and remote sensing proves to be very effective for flood disaster and mitigation management planning and measures.
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Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards is currently edited by Thomas Glade, Tad S. Murty and Vladimír Schenk
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http://econpapers.repec.org/article/sprnathaz/v_3a87_3ay_3a2017_3ai_3a3_3ad_3a10.1007_5fs11069-017-2816-4.htm
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Foraging For Oyster Mushrooms

Author
Maddy Harland

This delicacy isn't hard to find when you know what to look for, and Maddy is quick to put it to good use


 There is a treasure in the woods near me: a semi-rotten beech tree that hosts oyster mushroom mycellium. Every year, after a very cold snap (usually in January) the mycellium runs and its fruiting bodies appear. Behold! Sumptuous oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus).
Last weekend on our regular walk Tim and I went and checked the tree and saw that there was activity and so we made a note to come back weekly with a sharp knife and a bag for spoil. Today I took a Cutco knife called a 'Bullwhip'. It is American and was kindly given to me by my brother Nick who knows I have a penchant for good knives. Good man! He bought it in an auction years ago but never used it. It holds a fiercesome edge and is ideal for foraging. (Vegans cover your ears – it is also great for breasting pigeons – the pigeons who have eaten all of my annual and perennial winter brassicas.)
The tree is just at the beginning of its fruiting cycle so I only took enough for two people.

 Oyster mushrooms are easy to identify. They grow on beech and have a beautiful fluted shape. They are a usually white on top but they can go a shiny grey colour when exposed to frost. They have white gills. These gills run all the way down the stem. There are other oyster genus and they are not poisonous either. They just don't taste so good. Apparently, there is a poisonous look-alike found in Australia and Japan, called Omphalotus nidiformis. For a great identification guide, have a look here.

 I also have a few identification guide books for my foraging trips. They are also marvellous inspiration. My two loves are Richard Mabey's Food For Free and Wild Food by Roger Phillips. The latter I couldn't live without as it has great pictures and delicious recipes. I also have a useful Easy Edible Mushroom Guide that can slip into a coat pocket. Finally, if you really want to get into mushroom foraging and not make any fatal mistakes I highly recommend Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall's DVD Mushroom Magic. I find seeing edible fungi in its rightful location on film very helpful.
I am a self taught forager and cautious. I would not wish to imitate the behaviour of two women who spotted 'mushrooms' at Vennor Botanical Gardens on the Isle of Wight, picked them and took them home to eat. One died. They had mistakenly harvested Death Caps (Amanita phalloides). Apparently, they were rather tasty. Talk about a Last Supper.

 The other precaution you can take is to be intimate with your foraging patches and observe them all year round. Then you get to know when certain trees will fruit and how the forage grows year on year. This is working with the cycles of nature in true permaculture style. I also never decimate a crop. I want to come back next year and pick again and I also want to share my treasure with the local wildlife.

 Foraging is akin to finding your joy and beats shopping. Once the weather gets warmer, I am going to try the stinging nettle pesto recipe. Sounds delicious and it costs virtually nothing to make.

 For further information log on website :
https://www.permaculture.co.uk/articles/foraging-oyster-mushrooms
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DIY Natural Insecticides

Author
Treehugger

Seven recipes for making your own natural insecticides. Get rid of aphids, mites, beetles, whiteflies and more.


 These natural and DIY pesticides are effective at helping to rid your crops of harmful critters, but safe enough to keep from poisoning you and your family.

 There's nothing like having a home garden to make you begin to appreciate the trials and tribulations of the farmers who grow our food. Between weather, weeds, and insects, not to mention the challenges of soil fertility, it can be an incredibly humbling experience to try to put food on the table with a home garden - especially when adhering to organic protocols that don't rely on quick, yet potentially harmful, solutions, such as herbicides, pesticides, and conventional fertilizers. We've written previously about homemade herbicides, which can help you get a handle on noxious or invasive weeds without as much labor as hand-weeding, and this time around, we're taking aim at insect pests, which have the potential to turn your formerly lush garden into their own insect all-you-can-eat buffet.

 When it comes to keeping your crops healthy in the face of massive quantities of plant-munching insects, there are a number of approaches that can help turn the tide in favor of your own harvests, and while removing insects by hand is one time-tested method, it can also be incredibly challenging to do so, or can be too little too late. Another, far less time-intensive method of knocking back insect populations is by applying natural or homemade insecticides, which can reduce their numbers or eliminate them all together. Not all insects are harmful, so applying insecticides indiscriminately, especially harsh pesticides that affect even the beneficial insects, can have a detrimental effect on your local garden ecosystem.

 [N.B.: Just because these are 'natural' or homemade insecticides, that doesn't imply that they couldn't harm your soil, your garden, or your person. An insecticide is defined as "a substance used to kill insects," and as such, they have the potential to "significantly alter ecosystems" and can be toxic to humans and other animals, so before going all out with any pesticide or insecticide, be sure to do your homework and choose the most effective, least harmful (to you and your garden) option.]

7 Natural and homemade insecticides

1. Oil spray insecticide

A homemade insecticide made from vegetable oil mixed with a mild soap (such as Dr. Bronners castile soap) can have a devastating effect on certain troublesome insects, such as aphids, mites, thrips, etc. To make a basic oil spray insecticide, mix 1 cup of vegetable oil with 1 tablespoon of soap (cover and shake thoroughly), and then when ready to apply, add 2 teaspoons of the oil spray mix with 1 quart of water, shake thoroughly, and spray directly on the surfaces of the plants which are being affected by the little pests. The oil coats the bodies of the insects, effectively suffocating them, as it blocks the pores through which they breathe.

2. Soap spray insecticide

A very similar homemade pesticide to the oil spray is a soap spray, which is also effective for controlling mites, aphids, whiteflies, beetles, and other hungry little insects. To make a basic soap spray insecticide, mix 1 1/2 teaspoons of a mild liquid soap (such as castile soap) with 1 quart of water, and spray the mixture directly on the infected surfaces of the plants. A soap spray insecticide works in a similar fashion as an oil spray pesticide, and can be applied as necessary (though it is always recommended to NOT apply it during the hot sunny part of the day, but rather in the evenings or early mornings).

3. Diatomaceous earth as a natural pesticide

This natural substance with a somewhat unwieldy name is made from a sedimentary rock created by fossilized algae (diatoms), and which is a rather abundant resource (diatomaceous earth is said to make up 26% of the earth's crust by weight). Diatomaceous earth has a number of uses in and around the home, and acting as a natural insecticide is just one of them. This material works not by poisoning or smothering the insects, but instead by virtue of its abrasive qualities and its affinity for absorbing the lipids (a waxy substance) from insects' exoskeleton, which then dehydrates them to death. Diatomaceous earth is often available at garden stores, although many times only in large bags, so if you've got a small yard, consider splitting it with a neighbor. To apply, simply dust the ground around your plants, or even sprinkle it on the foliage, where it will help control snails and slugs as well as other crawling insects. Due to its dried nature, in order to be an effective natural pesticide, diatomaceous earth needs to be reapplied after every rain.

4. Garlic insecticide spray

Garlic is well-known for its pungent aroma, which is delectable to some and yet repellent to others, and it is this strong scent that comes into play when used as a natural insecticide. Actually, it's not really clear if garlic spray and chile spray (below) are actually insecticides or are more likely insect repellents, but either way, these common kitchen ingredients can be used to knock down, or even knock out, insect infestations in the garden. To make a basic garlic spray, take 2 whole bulbs (not just 2 cloves) and puree them in a blender or food processor with a small amount of water (quart). Let the mixture sit overnight, then strain it into a quart jar, adding 1/2 cup of vegetable oil (optional), 1 teaspoon of mild liquid soap, and enough water to fill the jar. To use this homemade insecticide, use 1 cup of mixture with 1 quart of water and spray liberally on infested plants.

5. Chilli pepper insecticide spray

Similar to garlic spray, chilli pepper spray is a great homemade natural insect repellent that can be used for a variety of different pests. Chilli spray can be made from either fresh hot peppers or chile pepper powder. To make a basic chilli spray from pepper powder, mix 1 tablespoon of chilli powder with 1 quart of water and several drops of mild liquid soap. This mixture can be used full-strength on the leaves of affected plants. To make chile spray from fresh chilli peppers, blend or puree 1/2 cup of peppers with 1 cup of water, then add 1 quart of water and bring to a boil. Let sit until cooled, then strain out the chilli material, add several drops of liquid soap to it and spray as desired. [Caution: Hot chilli peppers can be very potent on humans as well, so be sure to wear gloves when handling them, and keep any sprays made from them away from eyes, nose, and mouth.]

6. All-in-one homemade insecticide spray

From the folks at Rodale's Organic Life comes this all-in-one DIY natural insecticide, which is said to be a combination of many different recipes submitted by readers. To make it, puree 1 bulb of garlic and 1 small onion, add 1 teaspoon of cayenne pepper powder and let steep for an hour. Strain the mixture and add 1 tablespoon of liquid soap and mix well. To apply this homemade insecticide, spray it full-strength onto both the upper surface of the leaves, as well as the undersides, and store the remainder in the refrigerator for up to a week if desired.

7. Tomato leaf as a natural insecticide

I have to admit that this one is new to me, but I've seen enough mentions of it now to warrant its inclusion here as a natural pesticide. Tomato plants are part of the nightshade family, and as such, contain alkaloids such as the aptly named "tomatine," which can effectively control aphids and other insects. To make tomato leaf spray for a natural insecticide, chop 2 cups of fresh tomato leaves (which can be taken from the bottom part of the plant) into 1 quart of water, and let steep overnight. Strain out the plant material and spray onto plant foliage.

Make, use, and observe, then modify

Although there are many more natural pesticides available, such as Bt (a soil microbe toxic to certain insects), milky spore (also a microbe), nicotine (extracted as a tea from bulk tobacco), pyrethrum (derived from a variety of daisy), and iron phosphate (a natural mineral toxic to slugs and snails), the above natural and homemade insecticide recipes should give you a good starting point for creating your own version. Every organic gardener seems to have their own particular blend and ratio of ingredients, so by paying close attention to the effects of a specific recipe, it's possible to modify it to best suit your own insect battles.

 Just remember, killing off all of the insects in your garden is not the desired result here, as any healthy ecosystem requires an abundance of beneficial insects, microbes, and fungi, both in the soil and on the plants themselves, so introducing other predatory insects (ladybugs, praying mantis, etc.) or creating good habitat for them, as well as building soil fertility, can also be an effective pest management approach.

 For the full article see: www.treehugger.com/lawn-garden/8-natural-homemade-insecticides-save-your-garden-without-killing-earth.html

 For further information log on website :
https://www.permaculture.co.uk/readers-solutions/diy-natural-insecticides
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iPad vs Kindle: should you get an e-Book reader?

Author
Pete Cooper

It's easy to dismiss e-Books as a fad - another gadget-dependent way for us to spend our hard-earned money. But the enormous environmental cost of conventional, 'dead tree' publishing should convince anyone to take a closer look at any technology that promises as more sustainable alternative. So that's what we asked our resident tech-wizard, Pete Cooper, to do...


 Computers were my 'thing' when I was back at school and they were how I cut my teeth in the early part of my career; technical support jobs involving guiding people through how to do stuff on the computers they used at their workplace. I did technical support as a career for about 6 years, although I've been doing technical support for people that know I can do technical support for as long as I can remember.

 In a former life however, I devoured paper books with reckless abandon, shunning the usual pursuits of people my age by chewing through pages of textual goodness and escaping into whatever was happening on the page. I love the smell of new books, more so than old. Dr Chris Johnstone's Find Your Power has a nice whiff to it, and the printed photos in Sepp Holzer's Permaculture give it an entirely different, but still pleasant, aroma. As is the case for many of us I imagine, I have limited space for books. It's a small house, and working from home with my wife (Emma Cooper, author of The Alternative Kitchen Garden ...and yes, that is our back garden on the front cover) means a sizable portion of the floorspace is already set aside for our respective offices. The sad truth is that my bookshelves are just about full.

 I am confident, however, that I've found a good balance between the wired and un-wired worlds of reading: electronic books, or e-books. In the main, e-books have the same content as their printed  brethren, albeit with no paper, printing process or binding. These electronic book versions are simply files that are readable on computer screens, handheld book-reading devices (also known as e-book readers) and some mobile phones. As I write this in the summer of 2011, two of the most popular e-book readers are the Amazon Kindle and the Apple iPad, both of which I own and have used over the past few months. There are numerous (and increasing) other readers available on the market, but, as I haven't had long-term experience of them, I am not in a position to comment on them. What follows is, hopefully, a technobabble-free comparison and user review of the Amazon Kindle and Apple iPad. 

Key Differences: Kindle vs iPad

  • The Kindle 3 has a 15cm (6") greyscale (black and white) LCD screen. The iPad has a larger 24cm (9.7") glass, full-colour touchscreen, which makes it over three times as heavy as the Kindle 3 whic is smaller and lighter, weighing in at 225g (8oz) 
  • The glossy iPad screen is backlit with basic brightness control, the matt-finish Kindle screen doesn't have a backlight but does have a contrast control. 
  • The Kindle has a small QWERTY keyboard and some navigation buttons to help you around the various menus and options. The iPad keyboard appears as part of the touch screen when needed (for example, sending an email or browsing the Internet), but it has no physical keyboard.  
Both:
  • Come supplied with charging cables which, when connected to the USB port on your computer, can also be used to transfer things back and forth, be they e-books, music or whatever else. 
  • Both devices can, in my experience, be charged from the USB port on a Solar Gorilla from my home in Oxfordshire, England on sunny days. Charging a device from solar power is all well and good in my little world, and it certainly saves on munching the juice coming out of the wall sockets.

Using iPad outdoors

Speaking of sunny days, the iPad is close to useless outside in the sun. Really, it's awful. The beautiful glossy, glass touchscreen is not fond of the sunshine, and all sunny days succeed in providing is a smeary a touchscreen. The Kindle, though, is great outdoors. The screen is not glossy, and performs far better than the iPad if you're outside on sunny days. It's far more conducive to sitting on the grass, lazing in a chair or hiding away in your garden shed, especially if you've spent the household food budget on a new Kindle and your partner isn't pleased.

Specs for iPad; specs for Kindle

The technology inside the iPad is far more advanced than the Kindle; the Kindle is designed to be an e-book reader, a job it does very well, whereas the iPad has e-book reading capabilities from one of its many thousands of applications. The Kindle has recently acquired very basic Internet browsing capability thanks to a free-to-download software update. Given the choice, I wouldn't use a Kindle for looking at web pages – for one, the colour aspect of the Internet is gone, you're surfing in shades of grey. The iPad is essentially more like a laptop or handheld computer than an e-book reader. The focus of the iPad is the overall user experience across all of the things it can do – an experience which, to me, is more intuitive than the Kindle, but this is entirely down to personal choice. Both Kindle and iPad have wireless (wi-fi) networking bits built-in as standard. 

iPad and Kindle Memory Capacity

Both of these devices have an internal memory for thousands of text-centric books, but neither have a camera-style memory card slot for upgrading. The more photos, diagrams and pictures an e-book has, the larger it will be. Photo-heavy titles like Ben Law's Roundwood Timber Framing are larger than epic text-heavy works like Patrick Whitefield's recently-updated The Earth Care Manual. Simon Fairlie's Meat is a great example of text-heavy small-memory book. Except for the front and back covers, there are simple-yet-clear diagrams accompanying the text, meaning a shorter download time and less of your storage space taken up. 

How readable is the text on an iPad or Kindle?

When you buy a paper book, it's typically arranged and printed to the publisher's specifications, even on this website, the text you're seeing has been formatted to be displayed in a readable style. Clever folks have already decided how far apart the words should be, how high the lines are etc. And therein lies the success: they get it right so you don't have to worry about it. However, with an e-book, you have a level of control over how you read your text. If you're familiar with changing the appearance of text in a document on a computer in, say, Microsoft Office or Word, then this is what you should expect from an e-book reader. Most readers, regardless of their origin, can change the size, spacing, and layout of the text. If you prefer large type, you can have it. If you like to have hundreds of words on a page with smaller text, no problem. Don't like the fancy font the text is shown in? Chances are you can change it to something simpler. You may find that reading on the bus is easier with more space between the lines. Once you've read a few e-books on a Kindle or iPad, you begin to know what works for you, and that's the key. The iPad has a clever function of being able to change the text background from white to sepia, giving e-books a bit of a nostalgic, aged look and being easier on the eyes late at night. 

Downloading PDFs on an iPad or Kindle

Both Kindle and iPad can display PDFs. Neither device does it absolutely perfectly, but the iPad does a far better job at it and the Kindle is limited to showing shades of grey. Again, the PDF function is a fairly new addition to the Kindle via a free software update. As a reader, you are restricted to how the PDF is laid out by the publisher. There is little or no change to this layout that you as a reader can make as t he clever design folks have made the PDF to look like the paper version of the book.

e-Book Availability

Over time, publishers will make new and old books available as downloads, both from places like the Green Shopping e-books page and the relevant online stores for Kindle and iPad. Amazon's Kindle store has a larger range of books than Apple's iBooks store by virtue of it having a head-start by over a year. Both have a large selection of free-to-download books. The first Kindle-native e-book from Permanent Publications is Chrissie Sugden's Grounds For Hope and is available for immediate download from both Green Shopping and the Amazon Kindle store. Even with Amazon's relatively fast shipping, there's a lot to be said for immediate fulfillment. That's another key difference between paper books and e-books – spur-of-the-moment impulse purchases are just that, they're typically delivered to you in less than a minute and you don't need to constantly listen for delivery trucks. 

iPad, Kindle and e-Book Prices

Expect to pay considerably more for an iPad than a Kindle; typically, a basic iPad is about three-and-a-half times the price of a standard Kindle. E-book prices will vary from title to title, but are largely similar across the various formats, so you won't normally pay a premium.

iPad Durability; Kindle Durability

The price difference has had a practical impact on how I treat each device, however. My Kindle is light, portable, and crucially I don't feel the need to wrap it up in cotton wool to protect it. My iPad, however, has an after-market protective cover. I am far more wary of where it's used and stored and I wouldn't dare throw it in a rucksack like I would with a Kindle.

Where can I buy an iPad, Kindle and e-Books?

You can buy a Kindle direct from Amazon.com for domestic or international shipment and selected high street and online retailers. As a resident Limey, I bought my Kindle direct from Amazon.co.uk. You can buy an iPad from the Apple store online, via their retail stores and also at other 3rd party retailers. In both cases, the prices are largely similar from place to place. In my experience, Amazon are cheapest for iPads and Kindles, though pricing in each territory will vary slightly. An interesting recent development is the arrival of an ad-supported Kindle, which is available for a lower price ($25 less) than the standard (ad-free) version, though currently only available to North America. Called the Kindle with Special Offers & Sponsored Screensavers, it displays special offers and sponsored screen savers when you're not reading. There are clearly pros and cons to this new version, though it might be worth looking into if you're impervious to advertising and on a tighter budget. The screen savers on the standard version are portraits of well-known authors and other innocuous/uncontroversial book artwork. 

How Big is the Carbon Footprint? - Packaging

Both companies have made thoughtful decisions on reducing packing weight and wasted space. Both product boxes are small and well-packed, with the Kindle packing verging on minimalist. At the time of purchasing, both of my devices has card outers and no blown polystyrene inside. The Kindle tray was recycled card and I don't recall any plastic being used. My iPad packing tray was marked as PET and can be readily recycled where facilities exist. Less wasted space in the box means more efficient packing, which means fewer cargo shipping containers in the long run. Ultimately, each device was designed in the USA, manufactured and assembled in China and then shipped to its destination, so bear this in mind if you are mindful of the embodied carbon of each device.

Conclusion: What's the best e-reader?

Within the confines of an article about e-books, it's fair to say the extra stuff the iPad can do make it more suitable for people who are less voracious book consumers and want more of a computer experience with email, web browsing and the like. If I wanted a device primarily for reading text-heavy e-books, I'd get a Kindle. It does the job very well and I'm completely happy with it. Whether or not e-books are appropriate for the permaculture movement remains to be seen: there are compelling and rational arguments for and against, something which I'll go into more detail with in a future article.

 If I've achieved what I set out to do, you're read this far and learned a bit (or a lot) about the basics of Kindles and iPads. I could talk for hours on this subject but I will close by asking you to leave any outstanding questions in the comments below if you've got that spooked look on your face after reading this, and I will do my best to answer them. For now, however, I am going to shut down my computer, grab my Kindle, go outside in the sunshine and read a book...

For further information log on website :
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Turning an Old Playground into a Veg Garden

Author
Phil Moore
Laya Point Permaculture have transformed a forgotten tarmac playground into a raised bed veg garden, with the tarmac walkways serving as a thermal solar store.



 What was once an empty school playground is now home to a series of veg beds, with thermal solar storing pathways.

 Hopscotch and handball markings remain with the North/South/East/West compass still visible in the centre of the playground, now with veg beds moving outwards in a radial pattern, like the rays of the sun.

 Laya Point Permaculture, based on the site of an old country school in Cumbria, continues with education but in a very different vein. Alongside their growing space they recently ran a weekend residential on myco-scaping for gardens and smallholdings - growing edible and medicinal mushrooms and integrating them into mutually beneficial systems.

 The school yard plot began back in November 2012 with spray paint, string and tape measure in hand. A digger came in to break the surface and scoop out most of the hardcore from each bed over the course of two days. In March of 2013 Nicole and Tom of Laya Point, with a team Wwoofers, pick axed away the rest of the stone and tarmac and shaped out the beds before adding scaffolding planks. By 14th July of the 32 beds were ready to go.

 As well as the scaffolding plank beds, there are six beautifully put together stone wall beds. With this and the remaining 12 beds the playground plot was finished in October 2013.

 Good planning was essential in auditing and channelling their energies. Nicole expands on the design process:

 "The design is exactly as we planned it on paper. We did a scale drawing and worked out the width of the paths and beds that we thought would be the easiest to work with and get the wheel barrow through. We also wanted plenty of direct paths across the site. So although it is a patterned design we were able to move around it easily. It took us a few days to measure it out but it was worth the time planning properly. Planning also enabled us to estimate the quantity and cost of our materials."

An unintended consequence is that the tarmac acts as a heat sink helping warm the raised beds. At 200 feet above sea level and with cool winds, the Lake District can get chilly. 

 Nicole, who is also a member the Ulverston Permaculture Project group, recounts the early days of her new series of veg beds.

 Brian, her neighbour, and regular dispenser of garden lore and wisdom, assuaged her early garden woes, telling her, "Don't be a gardener if you're bothered by failures!".

Learning the ways of the gardener Nicole beautifully articulates how time and experience are often the best teachers:

 "Spring time sowing is an act of faith for those of us not raised in the ways of gardening. Sowing seeds requires so little effort at first, just a spare moment to sift the compost and sand together into a tray and then to gently press a single seed into each module. The slow start which originally fanned my fear of failure no longer seems to weigh on my mind. Watching the process it is obvious that the seeds want to grow - just in their own time. These basics aren't in any book. Time on the ground, literally, is the best way to learn when, and how, to do the jobs that make up gardening."

As well as the playground plot, Nicole and Tom have a nascent forest garden, the beginnings of a pond and plenty of composting.

 Nicole and Tom are Laya Point Permaculture based at The Old School in the stunning Cumbrian Lake District hamlet of Ulpha. Keeping an active site with Wwoofers Laya Point also run courses. To find our more: www.layapoint.com

 For further information log on website :
https://www.permaculture.co.uk/readers-solutions/turning-old-playground-veg-garden
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Snake Oil: How Fracking's False Promise of Plenty Imperils Our Future

Author
Rozie Apps 
A critical look at the oil and fracking industry from both an economic and environmental stance.
Author: Richard Heinberg
Publisher: Clairview Books
Publication year: 2014
RRP: £10.99
Buy now

 "While we tend to think of money as the prime mover of the economy, in fact it is energy that gets things done. More and cheap energy translates to a more complex society with a growing economy; less energy, and more expensive energy, translates to a stagnant or shrinking economy that sheds complexity."

 To me, this sums up Snake Oil: How Fracking's False Promise of Plenty Imperils Our Future. Energy is pivotal in today's society, with a range of techniques, and all controversial. This book explores one technique, fracking, and looks at how society's need for energy has lead to some shocking actions.

 Richard Heinburg, a senior fellow at the Post Carbon Institute, fills the pages with facts and figures about fracking in the US, giving a unbiased explanation of the growing industry that is beginning to hit the rest of the world.

 The reader is taken on a journey through the history of fracking, the ups and downs of both the opposition and the 'frackers'.
We are shown the figures for economic growth and oil and gas production rates, but also the devastation left behind in previous fracking communities: fracking companies give compensation to towns but in several examples the cost to repair the damage to the roads from the passing lorries equates to much more than is actually received in compensation. There is also the long-lasting pollution of water to take into account. The job growth myth is also explained, along with the real figures behind the fracking boom.
The biggest eye-opener is when Richard reveals how production from shale gas wells decline 80-95% after 36 months. This is due to 'sweet spots' (where there is a huge amount of gas). When fracking companies estimate the amount of shale gas areas can produce, they don't take into account that these 'sweet spots' are only a small proportion of the area and will be used up after a few years. After this period, it takes a lot more time, energy and money to extract the gas, basically making the shale gas more expensive to extract than its profit. There is even examples where horizontal drilling has been suspended because the cost of drilling is more than the sale of the shale gas /oil.

 Richard also explains that it takes all the drilling that the industry can do to keep production steady and that there is no excess of gas, just a constant effort to maintain levels. Basically, shale gas is not a sustainable energy that we can rely on for the future.

 An Energy Information Agency (EIA) report in March 2012 showed oil production had been overestimated for 12 years, and oil prices had been underestimated 62% of the time while natural gas prices had been underestimated by 70.8%.

 I believe Snake Oil: How Fracking's False Promise of Plenty Imperils Our Future, is a book that needs to be read by all. It is not an anti-fracking book, or specifically for environmentalists, but a well laid out exploration of the fracking industry with some shocking information that everybody needs to know.

 With the most throrough analysis of this industry ever taken, this book proves that fracking should not be the way forward for the energy industry. Even if you have no care for the environment, this book shows that a dependence on shale gas and oil drilling comes at a great cost. The evidence shows that in less than 50 years, shale gas will peak and the decline will be quick and dramatic, leaving society unprepared.

 Rozie Apps is assistant editor at Permaculture magazine.
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 For further information log on website :
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A Sanctuary of Trees

Author
Fiona Sanderson 
Fiona reviews A Sanctuary of Trees, a book helping to teach its readers how to live a more meaningful life with wood. Practical and thoughtful, it will prove a good read for all those who enjoy working with, or simply being around wood.
Author: Gene Logsdon
Publisher: Chelsea Green Publishing
Publication year: 2012
RRP: £14.99
Buy now

‘Contrary’ is a word that has followed Gene Logsdon; several of his previous books consider how to be a ‘contrary farmer’ and lead a ‘contrary life’. I suspect many of us can identify with the benefits and comforts of being contrary. Taking another look at the way people do things and wondering why is just one of those benefits.
If you wanted to lead a more ‘contrary’ lifestyle, well Gene Logsdon’s back catalogue could take you all the way from gardening self sufficiency on two acres, through aquaculture, the influence of farming on creativity, small scale grain cultivation, to nothing more ambitious than being happy and content with life as it is. At least, that is one of the messages I got from his latest book, my best read of 2012.

A Sanctuary of Trees is a simple and practical book about living with wood. Chapters consider how to start up your own woodland, how much timber it might produce, what you can use it for, and how much wood it takes to keep warm. You’ll also find advice on wildwood food, green woodworking, how to find useful woods in the suburbs, and wood stove efficiency comparisons from someone who has clearly tried out nearly everything. 

As a guide to wood, it is clearly reliable as well as useful. But this book is so much more than that. It is a gentle philosophy of life that recognises how good things can be when humans take a minor part in an ecosystem, rather than choosing to dominate it. He reflects on decades of experience of woodland management and concludes it’s best to resist the impulse to weigh in with your sleeves rolled up, crashing around with an intent to improve. “The most profound lesson the trees have tried to teach me is patience,” he says. Use the trees’ lifespan, rather than your own, as a measure for woodland management and, in the end, he reflects that there is little difference in tree growth and yield in woodland areas where immense effort goes in to thinning and brush clearance, and areas where nature is left alone. 

In particular, I found his thoughts on the beauty of wood, the magical architecture of trees, and the value of tranquillity so appealing, so persuasive that I was inspired to think again about my own contrary life in a city and whether there are more ways I could live closer to wood. “The real work of humans is to make sure that woodlands are not turned into more concrete or corn,” he says, “Nature can handle the rest.” I loved his perceptions of humanity striving to fit into straight lines, flat surfaces, square corners as running counter to nature. As he says, “Straight lines end; circles are forever. The earth is round.” Finding use in the curves and shape, in life, as well as wood, is natural, human. Actually, it’s not contrary at all.

Save £2.00. Buy The Sanctuary of Trees from Green Shopping for just £12.99. Also available from Chelsea Green Publishing in the USA.

More resources

More books on woodland:
The Woodland Way by Ben Law
The Woodland Year by Ben Law
A Wood of Our Own by Julian Evans

 Watch: A Woodland Awakening - The Importance of Trees
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The Organic Medicinal Herb Farmer

Author
Joan Bailey
Learn how to farm medicinal herbs, from growing and processing, to species, choosing land and seed, and packaging for customers.
Author: Melanie and Jeff Carpenter
Publisher: Chelsea Green
Publication year: 2015
RRP: £27.99
Buy now

 While there are a multitude of books on farming, few if any discuss medicinal herbs. Peg Shafer’s The Chinese Medicinal Herb Farm (Chelsea Green, 2011) was one of the first to do so in great detail.

 The Carpenters however, can set their tome – The Organic Medicinal Herb Farmer – next to it with the confidence they have created a new classic in the same realm.

 In it they cover medicinal plants native to the Americas and beyond, while offering extensive information on all aspects of building a successful farm business. Medicinals remain a relatively new arena, but one with great potential for experienced and novice farmers alike.

 Most people, the Carpenters write, understand the idea of local food, but local medicine remains revolutionary. They aim to change that while improving the economic, environmental and physical health of farming communities.

 Existing farmers are encouraged to take advantage of a new market that would diversify their crops and incorporate perennials which don’t need to be replanted regularly and that attract a wide variety of beneficials.

 Beginning farmers will discover not only the information they need but also the kinds of questions they need to pose in order to get off to a good start.

 The book is broken into two parts: the growing and processing of herbs, followed by which herbs to grow. It sounds simple enough, but the Carpenters manage to press between these two covers everything from choosing land, creating a business plan, setting seeds and the machinery needed to do so, right through growing, harvest and final packaging before shipping.

 Marketing is also included. All of that is couched in discussion of current and possibly changing regulations, how to ride market fluctuations and labor costs. The Carpenters share mistakes, successes, and what they would do differently if they could. Trained on Melanie’s mother’s medicinal farm, they keep meticulous records, a habit which paid off ten-fold. They quickly learned which cover crops were most effective, how much weeding costs in terms of time and labor, and which plants thrived in a wild setting versus a shade house.

 Like any good farmer, they are as thoughtful in the business office as they are in the field. Lists of questions every grower, whether established or beginning, should ask dot the pages as do tables illustrating examples of records or plants to pair. Stunning photographs of their farm, equipment, fields and staff at work further illustrate their points.

 The list of 50 herbs at the end offers basic plant information including life cycles, planting considerations, growing conditions, propagation, medicinal uses, harvest specifications, pests and diseases, post harvest considerations, yields and pricing.

 The plants listed here are those the authors find a steady demand for in the market. For growers looking to diversify their income stream, add perennial crops that would also attract beneficials, or create a local medicinal movement, The Organic Medicinal Herb Farmer will surely prove an indispensable tool for years to come.
Joan Bailey writes about food, farming and farmers’ markets in Japan www.japanfarmersmarkets.com

 For further information log on website :
https://www.permaculture.co.uk/book-reviews/organic-medicinal-herb-farmer
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Fasting for Runners

Author BY   ANDREA CESPEDES  Food is fuel, especially for serious runners who need a lot of energy. It may seem counterintuiti...