Influence of processing parameters on some properties of oil palm trunk binderless particleboard

Influence of processing parameters on some properties of oil palm trunk binderless particleboard

Jia Geng Boon,  Rokiah Hashim, Othman Sulaiman,  Salim Hiziroglu,  Tomoko Sugimoto, Masatoshi Sato



Abstract

The objective of the study was to evaluate some properties of experimental binderless particleboards produced from various processing parameters. Three different temperatures (160, 180, 200 °C), two different hot pressing times (15, 20 min) and two different pressures (5, 10 MPa) were applied in manufacturing the binderless particleboard. Three replications of each of the 12 different types of boards with a target density of 0.60 g cm−3 were produced. The thickness swelling, dimensional changes associated with changes in relative humidity, bending strength, internal bonding strength, and soil burial decay test were evaluated. Increase of temperature, duration of hot pressing and pressure increased the properties of specimens. Thickness swelling nearly met the requirement of European Standard for use in humid condition. Some of the specimens showed promising mechanical properties and met the requirement of European Standard.

Identifiers 

journal ISSN :	0018-3768
journal e-ISSN :	1436-736X
DOI	10.1007/s00107-013-0712-5

Additional information 

Copyright owner:Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2013

Publication languages:English

Data set:Springer

Publisher 

Springer Berlin Heidelberg

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Decay and termite resistance of particleboard manufactured from wood, bamboo and rice husk

Decay and termite resistance of particleboard manufactured from wood, bamboo and rice husk

Rafael Rodolfo de Melo^1,♠, Diego Martins Stangerlin¹, Ricardo Robinson Campomanes Santana², Talita Dantas Pedrosa³

¹Forest Engineer, Teacher, Doctor in Wood Science and Technology, Mato Grosso Federal University (UFMT), Agricultural and Environment Science Institute (ICAA), Sinop, MT, Brazil. diego_stangerlin@yahoo.com.br.

²Physical, Teacher, Doctor in Physical, Mato Grosso Federal University (UFMT), Agricultural and Environment Science Institute (ICAA), Sinop, MT, Brazil. ricardo_speru@yahoo.com.br.

³Environmental Engineer, Campina Grande Federal University (UFCG), Department of Environmental Engineering, Pombal, PB, Brazil. tdpedrosa2@yahoo.com.br.

ABSTRACT

The resistance of particleboards, made from wood, bamboo and rice husk, to fungi and termites was evaluated. Panels were composed of 100% wood (Eucalyptus grandis), 100% bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), 100% rice husk (Oryza sativa), 50% wood and 50% bamboo; and 50% wood and 50% rice husk. Panels exposed to the decay the brown-rot fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum, and the white- rot fungus (Trametes versicolor), and, in a choice feeding trial, to termites (Nasutitermes corniger). The rice husk particleboards had the highest resistance of all samples and the bamboo particleboards had the lowest resistance. T. versicolor fungi produced a larger mass loss in the particleboards than did G. trabeum.

Keywords: Decay Susceptibly Index, biodeterioration, agricultural residues. 

INTRODUCTION

Wood particleboards, as well as solid wood, when utilized in places with high moisture conditions, are subject to deterioration and, once attacked, they lose both weight and mechanical resistance. Apart from moisture, Zabel and Morrell (1992) emphasize that other factors such as temperature, pH and oxygen have an influence on the capacity of xylophagous agents to colonize and, consequently, deteriorate any lignocellulosic material.

The wood used for particleboard manufacturing usually is of low durability. The utilization of wood with higher durability or the combination of species to improving its resistance to biological agents has been studied by some authors (Evans et al. 1997, Kartal and Green 2003, Shi et al. 2006, Okino 2007). Nevertheless, not much is known about combining wood particles with alternative raw materials in particleboard manufacturing. Yalinkilic et al.(1998) consider that the utilization of raw materials with greater durability for composites manufacturing would decrease environmental and health risks caused by the application of chemical preservatives.

The particleboards can be produced from any lignocellulosic materials, as long as they provide proper physical, mechanical and biological resistance. The quality of the final product is directly related to the choice of material. Within the alternative sources that have been used or with potential for utilization, bamboo and rice husk can be pointed out. Their utilization can be an alternative for regions with scarce wood resources, or even as a way to decrease the final cost of particleboards.

With respect to the physical-mechanical properties, some studies indicated that particleboards made from bamboo, on its own or combined with wood particles, give satisfactory performance (Hiziroglu et al. 2005, Araujo et al. 2011). On the other hand, one of its inconveniences drawbacks is its fast deterioration due to the anatomical structure composed of fibrovascular bundles surrounded by parenchymal tissue, rich in reserve substances in the form of starch (Stangerlin et al. 2011). Yet, an inverse behavior has been observed for rice husk (Lee and Kang 1998, Melo et al. 2010). Therefore, in the present study the resistance of particleboards manufactured from wood, rice husk and bamboo particles, in different proportions, was evaluated against biodeterioration organisms – fungi and termites.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Particleboard manufacturing

Particleboards were produced in five different proportions of wood (Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden), rice husk (Oryza sativa L.) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris Schr.) particles, as shown in table 1. Six particleboards were manufactured for each treatment, in a total of 30. The manufacturing parameters were: 0,65 g/cm³ nominal density; 3,0 N/mm² pressing strength; 8-minute pressing period; 40-second pressing shutdown; 8% adhesive (urea-formaldehyde) and 1% wax based on the content of solids, in both cases considering particles mass loss.

Table 1. Proportion of particle type for each treatment.

W = wood particles; B = bamboo particles; R = rice husk particles.

Choice feeding assay with subterranean termites

The assays were conducted according to methodology proposed by Supriana (1985). Six samples with 7,5 cm x 2,5 cm x 0,95 cm (length, width and thickness) were taken from each particleboard. Apart from these samples, specimens from Pinus sp. sapwood, with the same dimensions, used as standard for comparison, were submitted to the assay as recommended by ASTM D – 3345 (1994).

Before the assay, the samples were placed in a climate chamber (20°C and 65% relative moisture) until constant weight and weighed for determination of the initial mass for later comparison with the mass obtained at the end of the tests. The assay was set in a fibrocement box with a capacity of 250 liters, containing a 10-cm sand layer with moisture adjusted to 75% of retention capacity. The samples were distributed according to a randomized block design, considering the five different proportions of particles besides the control samples (Pinus sp.). Even though, in these types of assays, it is recommended that the samples remain buried to half of their length, the probable difficulty in removing the samples after the assay, due to sand moisture, caused an adaptation in the methodology as suggested by Melo et al. (2010). Hence, the samples were placed horizontally on a metal tray, sitting on top of the sand.

A Nasutitermes corniger Motsch. full colony (with all castes including king and queen) was placed inside a fibrocement box, disposed in a grid over the layer of humid sand and the metal tray with the samples. Afterwards, the fibrocement box was covered using a nylon screen in order to impede termite escape. The samples were exposed to termites for 45 days, in a climate-controlled room (28°C and 75% relative moisture). After the assay, the samples were again conditioned until the weights had stabilized (20°C and 65% relative moisture) and weighed in order to evaluate the percentage of mass loss.

Accelerated decay test

The Accelerated decay tests were conducted according to the methodology of ASTM D 2017 (2005). Six samples were taken from each panel in order to perform the tests, with 2,5 cm x 2,5 cm x 0,95 cm (length, thickness and width). After climatization (20°C and 65% relative moisture), the initial mass of each sample was obtained for later comparison with the final mass after the assay. Before exposing to fungi, the specimens were sterilized in autoclave at 127°C for 40 minutes.

Two species of xylophage fungi were used: the white rot Trametes versicolor (L.; Fr.) Pilat; and the brown rot Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.; Fr.) Karte. The assays were set up in clear glass flasks, with a wide opening, and a screwtop lid, capacity for 190 mL, containing 70 g of sieved soil (2-mm mesh), free from coarse organic matter and with pH and moisture adjusted to 6,0 and 130% of retention capacity, respectively. In each flask, on the soil, a feeder strip placed of Pinus sp. sapwood (for Gloeophyllum trabeum cultivation) or of Cecropia sp. (for Trametes versicolor cultivation), with dimensions of 3,5 cm x 2,9 cm x 3 mm. At the same time, flasks were set up for control samples also using feeder strip of Pinus sp. and Cecropia sp. sapwood (ASTM D 2017 2005).

Then, the flasks were autoclaved at 127°C for 45 minutes and, after cooling, they were inoculated in each flask (pipetted) with 2 mL of the respective culture medium, containing the mycelium. Afterwards, the flasks were taken to the incubator (26°C and 70% relative moisture), until the mycelium completely covered the back plate (four weeks). After the feeder strip colonization, one specimen was placed added in each flask. Control samples of Pinussp. and Cecropia sp. sapwood with the same dimensions were also submitted to fungal action.

The samples remained in contact with the fungi for 12 weeks, in the incubator, under the conditions already described. After this period, they were taken removed from the assay flasks and the adhered mycelium removed. The samples were again climatized and weighed as prior to the experiment.

Analysis of the results

The particleboard resistance to termite attack was assessed by mass loss (Table 2) and wear of the panels due to termite activity provoked by the termites (Table 3). The mean values observed for mass loss and wear were evaluated by analysis of variance with further comparison of means by Student’s T test (p < 0,05). For decay resistance, the results were evaluated based on mass loss, and the classification as suggested by ASTM D 2017 (2005), shown in table 3. The decay values caused by fungi were assessed through factorial analysis, considering the following factors: type of particleboard, with five levels, and type of fungus, with two levels. The factors or their interaction when verified as significant by F test was then analyzed by Scott-Knott’s test (p < 0,05).

Table 2. Evaluation of wood wear (ASTM D 3345, 1994).

Table 3. Class of decay resistance to xylophagous fungi (ASTM D 2017, 2005).

In addition the Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI) was estimated Curling and Murphy (2002). The index is a means to aiming at compare the intensity of attack for the different xylophagous organisms (Equation 1). The DSI average values were also assessed by factorial analysis, considering the factors: type of particleboard, with five levels; and the type of xylophage organism, with three levels. The factors or their interaction, when verified as significant by the F test, was then analyzed by Scott-Knott’s test (p < 0,05).

(1)

Where:

DSI = Decay Susceptibility Index; WLs = mass loss of the samples; WLc = mass loss of the control samples.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Termite resistance

The analysis of the mass loss caused by N. corniger termites indicates that their attack happened almost exclusively to the particleboards with wood (W) and bamboo (B) particles or with their mixture (WB), whereas the highest resistance was observed for the particleboards made from rice husk (R) or by their combination with wood particles (WR) (Figure 1). The high resistance of particleboards manufactured with rice husk to termites was also verified by Melo (2009), who attributed this performance to the high content of carbon and inorganic components in the rice husk, a material that is difficult to digest termites. It is noteworthy that this assay regarded feeding preference, wherein wood particleboards were offered simultaneously to the termites, making them choose the most suitable food source among those offered. This type of assay, according to Supriana (1985), presents more realistic results since termites are selective/discerning feeders in nature. Another advantage of the method is that it causes a lower level of stress to the insects, since they could stay in their nest and were not housed in flasks with just sand and with only one food source, as standardized by ASTM D 3345 (1994).

	(b)
Figure 1. (a) Mass loss (b) Waste caused by termites.

While comparing the resistance of B or WB particleboards with W particleboards, the highest resistance was verified for W. This result can be explained owing to the fact that bamboo presents high starch content in its constitution, which makes it more susceptible to xylophagous organisms attack. Steiner et al. (2008) emphasizes that this high susceptibility is considered one of the main aspects limiting bamboo utilization as raw material for several purposes. However, Ubidia (2002) points out that this deficiency can be easily solved through treatments with preservative products.

It can still be observed in figure 1 that the wear verified for the different particleboards was less evident in type W. For the other cases, no significant difference was verified. Although the particleboards made from rice husk showed lower mass loss, they also presented less resistance to handling after the assay, being those which most crumbled, with samples ending up totally uneven and, in some cases, with clear defects. This happened mainly due poor adhesion of the particles. This deficiency in adhesion was intensified by the assay condition with an environment of high relative moisture and by the low moisture resistance of the adhesive used (urea-formaldehyde). This explained the low grades assigned after the assay, not because of the termite attack, but due to the defects observed in the samples influenced by the deficient gluing.

The average mass loss observed for the control samples made with wood from Pinus sp. sapwood was 58,4% after to termite attack.

Decay resistance

For both fungi, the decay class of the WR particleboards was moderately resistant and, for type R, resistant. On the other hand, W, B and WB particleboards showed different intensities of attack for the two fungi. T. versicolorshowed the most severe attack. Only WB particleboards exposed to Trametes versicolor showed mass loss of over 45%, being classified as nonresistant. For the other cases, the classification observed ranged from resistant to moderately resistant with – mass loss between 11% and 44% (Table 4). Teixeira et al. (1997) emphasize that the classification of moderately resistant, alone, does not derail these particleboards utilization, considering that they do not come to be used in adverse environments, such as outside or in direct contact with the soil.

Table 4. Comparison of average mass loss and classification of wood to fungi attack.

Averages in columns followed by the same lowercase letter, or in rows by the same capital letter do not differ statistically (Scott-Knott, p > 0,05).

When submitted to T. versicolor (white rot) attack, the R particleboards were the most resistant, while types B and WB showed the lowest resistance. The highest resistance of particleboards made from rice husk can be attributed to the high silica content of this material, which confers higher durability and, therefore, resistance to microorganisms (Melo 2009). The high starch content in bamboo particles may have promoted the most severe attacks (Steiner et al. 2008). For G. trabeum (brown rot), the mixture of particles (WB and WR particleboards) was most severely attacked. No significant difference was observed for the other cases.

When the attack rates between the fungal species are compared, it is verified that in all cases T. versicolor caused the greatest damage. This result can be explained by the fact that white-rot fungi in general cause most severe attacks, with different effects for all the main wood chemical constituents – cellulose, polyoses and lignin. Nonetheless, brown-rot fungi, such as G. trabeum, are characterized by exclusively attacking the polysaccharide present in the lignocellulosic materials (Curling et al. 2000, Stangerlin et al. 2011).

The average mass loss found for control samples made of wood from Cecropia sp. sapwood and exposed to T. versicolor, as well as for those made of wood from Pinus sp. sapwood and exposed to G. trabeum was, respectively, 55,9% and 60,7%. For both cases, mass loss was higher than the minimum required by ASTM D 2017 (2005), which is 50%, showing that the fungus cultures were vigorous and that the experimental conditions were appropriate.

Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI)

The Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI) values obtained for the different types of particleboards studied are show in table 5. DSI is a relative value, as it compares the sample mass loss to a reference species. Curling and Murphy (2002) recommend the use of this index to compare decay tests carried out in different laboratories, periods and conditions, or to compare samples of different sizes and densities. The principle of this analysis is based on the assumption of differences in the vigor of cultures, the incubation conditions or in characteristics of the materials. In the present study, the index was calculated to compare the attack between different types of decay fungi (white rot and brown rot) and the attack caused by termites.

Table 5. Comparing between Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI) and the panels types for different xylophagous organisms.

Averagens in columns followed by the same lowercase letter, or in rows by the same capital letter do not differ statistically (Scott-Knott, p > 0,05).

In all cases, the experimental particleboards showed higher resistance than the reference woods, that is, DSI was lower than 100%. Particleboards made only from rice husk (R) were most resistant of overall, particleboards manufactured with bamboo particles showed more intense deterioration. Comparing all three xylophagous agents, the particleboards were most susceptible to attack by the fungus T. versicolor.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of rice husk particles as raw material for particleboards provided the highest resistance to the evaluated xylophagous organisms. Particleboard made from bamboo had overall lower resistance. The Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI), used to compare the attacks of the different xylophage organisms, pointed to T. versicolor (white rot) as the fungus which caused the most severe attacks to the particleboards.

References

American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM. 1994. Standard method for laboratory evaluation of wood and other cellulosic materials for resistance to termites: specification ASTM D- 3345. ASTM, Philadelphia.         [ Links ]

American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM. 2005. Standard method for accelerated laboratory test of natural decay resistance for woods: specification ASTM D - 2017. ASTM, Philadelphia.         [ Links ]

Araújo, P.C.; Arruda, L.M.; Del Menezzi, C.H.S.; Teixeira, D.E. 2011. Lignocellulosic composites from Brazilian giant bamboo (Guadua magna) Part 1: Properties of resin bonded particleboards. Maderas. ciencia y tenología13(3):297-306.         [ Links ]

Curling, S.; Winandy, J.E.; Clausen, C.A. 2000. An experimental method to simulate incipient decay of wood by basidiomycete fungi. In: XXXI The International Research Group on Wood Preservation. Proceedings. Kona, IRG pp. 13 (IRG/WP/00-20200).         [ Links ]

Curling, S.F.; Murphy, R.J. 2002. The use of the Decay Susceptibility Index (DSI) in the evaluation of biological durability tests of wood based board materials. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 60(2):224-226.         [ Links ]

Evans, P.D.; Creffield, J.W.; Conroy, J.S.G. 2005. Natural durability and physical properties of particleboard composed of white cypress pine and radiata pine. Forest Products Journal 47(6):87- 94.         [ Links ]

Hiziroglu, S.; Jarusombuti, S.; Fueangvivat, V. 2005. Properties of bamboo-rice straw-eucalyptus composite panels. Forest Products Journal 55(12):221-225.         [ Links ]

Kartal, S.N.; Green, F. 2003. Decay and termite resistance of medium density fiberboard (MDF) made from different wood species. International Biodeterioration Biodegradation 51(1):29-35.         [ Links ]

Lee, H.H.; Kang, C.W. 1998. Development of rice hull insulation board using urea formaldehyde resin. Journal Korean Wood Science and Technology 26(4):50-55.         [ Links ]

Melo, R.R. 2009. Physical-mechanical properties and decay resistance of wood and rice husk particleboard in different proportions (In Portuguese). Master's Thesis, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil.         [ Links ]

Melo, R.R.; Santini, E.J.; Haselein, C.R.; Garlet, A.; Paes, J.B.; Stangelin, D.M. 2010. Particleboard resistance to termite and fungi made with Eucalyptus grandis wood and different resins (in Portuguese). Cerne16(3):82-89.         [ Links ]

Okino, E.Y.A. 2007. Biodegradation of oriented strandboards of pine, eucalyptus and cypress exposed to four decay fungi (in Portuguese). Scientia Forestalis 74(1):67-74.         [ Links ]

Shi, J.L.; Yang, D.Q.; Zhang, S.Y.; Riedl, B. 2006. Mold resistance of medium density fiberboard panels made from black spruce, hybrid poplar and a mixture of S-P-F chips. European Journal Wood and Wood Products64(3):167-171.         [ Links ]

Stangerlin, D.M.; Melo, R.R.; Garlet, A.; Gatto D.A. 2011. Natural durability of Eucalyptus grandis and Bambusa vulgaris particleboards under accelerated fungi decay test (in Portuguese). Ciência Rural 41(8):1369-1374.         [ Links ]

Steiner, R.; Boahin, O.J.B.; Adu-Agyem, J. 2008. Development of a gas fired boiler for preservative treatment of sympodial bamboo species in Ghana. Journal of Bamboo Rattan 7(2):133-139.         [ Links ]

Supriana, N. 1985. Notes the resistance of tropical wood against termites. International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Stockholm, Sweden (Doc. IRG /WP/ 1249).         [ Links ]

Teixeira, D.E.; Costa, A.F.; Santana, M.A.E. 1997. Test for natural decay resistance of the sugar cane bagasse particleboard (in Portuguese). Scientia Forestalis 52(1):29-34.         [ Links ]

Ubidia J.A.M. 2002. Traditional bamboo preservation in Latin America. Colour Max Publication, Los Angeles.         [ Links ]

Yalinkilic, M.K.; Imamura, Y.; Takahashi, M.; Kalaycioglu, H.; Gokay, N.; Demirci, Z.; Ozdemir, T. 1998.Biological, physical and mechanical properties of particleboard manufactured from waste tea leaves. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 41(1):75-84.         [ Links ]

Zabel, R.A.; Morrell, J.J. 1992. Wood microbiology: decay and its prevention. Academic, San Diego.         [ Links ]

---

^♠Corresponding author: rrmelo2@yahoo.com.br.

Received: 16.08.2013 Accepted: 17.03.2014

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Resistance of selected wood-based materials to fungal and termite attack in non-soil contact exposures.

Subject:
Bamboo (Diseases and pests)
Bamboo (Research)
Wood (Diseases and pests)
Wood (Research)

Author:
Morrell, Jeffrey J.

Publication
Name: Forest Products Journal Publisher: Forest Products Society Audience: Trade Format: Magazine/Journal

Subject: 
Business; Forest products industry Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2011 Forest Products Society ISSN: 0015-7473

Issue:
Date: Nov, 2011 Source Volume: 61 Source Issue: 8

Topic:
Event Code: 310 Science & research

Product:
SIC Code: 0831 Forest products

Geographic :
Geographic Scope: Hawaii Geographic Name: Hilo, Hawaii Geographic Code: 1U9HI Hawaii

Abstract

The resistance of three naturally durable heartwood species and a stranded giant bamboo product to fungal and termite (Coptotermes formosanus) attack was evaluated at a test site located near Hilo, Hawaii. Merbau (Intsia bijuga or I. palembanica) and ipe (Tabebuia spp.) were both exceptionally resistant to fungal and termite attack, while western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) heartwood was slightly less resistant to degradation. The presence of heartwood on western juniper samples had no noticeable effect on the performance of adjacent sapwood. The bamboo decking proved to the least durable of the materials and experienced substantial termite and fungal attack over the 32-month test period.

**********

Wood represents one of the most important renewable construction materials. Wood is easily shaped, requires little energy for processing, and has exceptional structural properties; however, one of its most important negative attributes is its susceptibility to biological degradation under the proper conditions. The risk of degradation varies with environmental conditions, with the highest risk occurring with direct soil contact or marine exposures. Degradation can be controlled in two ways. The first involves taking advantage of the presence of compounds naturally produced in the heartwood of some species. These compounds can provide resistance to attack by fungi, insects, and marine borers (Scheffer and Cowling 1966). Two excellent examples of naturally durable materials are ipe (Tabebuia spp.) and merbau (Intsia bijuga or I. palembanica), which have well-deserved reputations for durability and are used in a variety of exterior applications (Yamamoto and Hong 1989, 1994; Tsunoda 1990; Scheffer and Morrell 1998; Miller et al. 2003; Ngee et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2005; Arango et al. 2006; Tanikawa 2006; Flaete et al. 2009). The domestic softwood western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) has a similar reputation for durability in soil contact (Morrell et al. 1999).

The other approach for improving durability is to artificially impregnate the material with biocides that limit the risk of biological attack. While a variety of nondurable materials are impregnated to improve their durability, bamboo-based materials have attracted increased interest. Bamboo is typically considered to be nondurable (Liese and Kumar 2003), but there has been interest on the part of producers for exterior applications such as decking. Evaluating the durability of these materials can occur in a number of ways, depending on the intended application. Historically, durability against terrestrial biodeterioration has most often been assessed by exposing wood stakes to direct soil contact. In many cases, however, the wood will not be in contact with soil, and the soil exposure assessment may unfairly rule out products that might perform well in aboveground exposures. Fortunately, there are a number of standards for evaluating the risk of decay out of soil contact. Two of the most commonly used methods for evaluating aboveground durability are the ground proximity procedures for fungal or termite exposures (American Wood Protection Association [AWPA] 2006a, 2006b). Both methods place the wood on concrete blocks to avoid direct soil contact, but differ in the extent to which specimens can be wetted. The fungal exposure places shade cloth over the blocks, allowing rainfall to enter, but limiting drying, while the termite procedures cover the blocks to prevent wetting. These two procedures provide reasonable approaches for assessing products intended for decking applications. Unfortunately, these methods have most often been applied for evaluating preservative-treated wood, and there are few data assessing naturally durable woods.

This report describes field evaluations of three naturally durable woods and a stranded bamboo composite.

Materials and Methods

Merbau, ipe, and western juniper lumber was obtained from commercial sources. A stranded composite giant bamboo product (most likely Bambusa atrovirens) was also included in the test. The materials were cut into 19 by 50 by 125-mm-long specimens. The merbau and ipe materials contained only heartwood. The western juniper was a mixture of sapwood and heartwood. While sapwood is generally considered to have little inherent durability, there are claims that juniper sapwood adjacent to heartwood is protected. For this reason, juniper samples were cut with all sapwood, all heartwood, and a mixture of the two. A total of 40 specimens were prepared for the merbau, ipe, and bamboo samples. Thirty samples were prepared from juniper heartwood or sapwood, while only 10 samples could be fabricated from the heartwood-sapwood mixture.

Half of the samples for each material were exposed to termites, while the other half of the samples were exposed to fungal attack. The termite exposure followed the procedures described in AWPA Standard E21 (AWPA 2006b). Briefly, hollow concrete blocks were placed on the ground and then untreated southern pine sapwood stakes (19 by 19 by 200 mm long) were driven into the ground to create pathways for termites to explore upward onto the concrete. Test specimens were placed on the blocks in a pattern in which each piece was surrounded by 19 by 19-mm untreated pine sapwood. The resulting assembly was then covered with a wood box that prevented overhead wetting. The assembly was evaluated at approximately 6-month intervals. The specimens were scraped clean of materials deposited by the termites and then visually rated on a scale from 10 (no evidence of termite attack) to 0 (completely destroyed; ratings: 10, 9, 7, 4, or 0). Additional untreated pine sapwood stakes were driven into the ground, and the test blocks were placed on the concrete blocks along with untreated pine sapwood controls, again surrounded by 19 by 19-ram untreated pine sapwood. The site, located in Hilo, Hawaii, has a tropical climate and is characterized by an extremely aggressive attack by Coptotermes formosansus.

Fungal exposure followed procedures described in AWPA Standard E18 in which solid concrete blocks were placed on the ground and then the test specimens were placed on the blocks (AWPA 2006a). The blocks were then covered with a frame containing greenhouse shade cloth. The samples were exposed to approximately 5 m of annual rainfall and average daily temperatures between 24[degrees]C and 30[degrees]C. The site, located outside Hilo, Hawaii, has an average Scheffer Climate index above 400 (Scheffer 1971). Each sample's condition was visually assessed at approximately 6-month intervals using a visual scale from 10 (completely sound, no evidence of damage) to 0 (completely destroyed; ratings: 10, 9.5, 9.0, 8.0, 7.0, 4.0, or 0).

Results and Discussion

Termite exposure

Untreated pine sapwood was completely destroyed at each evaluation point, indicating that conditions were suitable for aggressive Formosan termite attack (Table 1). Termite workers tended to cover merbau and ipe samples with soil and fecal matter, but there was no evidence of substantial termite attack. One ipe block contained a single exploratory tunnel, which was not extended in subsequent exposures. The juniper sapwood blocks experienced substantial termite attack after the first 6-month exposure. The damage continued to progress over the next 26 months, and the samples were nearly destroyed at that point. Juniper heartwood samples were free of termite damage for the first 12 months of exposure and then experienced slight damage after 20 and 32 months. The results indicate that both ipe and merbau would be considered highly resistant to Formosan termite attack, while the juniper heartwood was slightly less resistant. Juniper sapwood had little resistance to termite attack.

Samples with a mixture of juniper sapwood and heartwood were also attacked within 6 months of exposure, but the attack was primarily confined to the sapwood portions of the blocks. Termite attack continued to increase on these specimens over the additional exposure period, but the damage was relatively slight. The results indicate that adjacent heartwood does not markedly affect termite resistance of the sapwood.

Bamboo composite samples also experienced attack within 6 months of Formosan termite exposure. Although the silicate in bamboo may make it slightly resistant to termite attack, bamboo has little natural resistance to degradation (Liese and Kumar 2003). This attack was confined to specific strands in the composite. Termite attack continued to progress with continued exposure and samples had an average rating of 4.5 after 32 months of exposure. The attack continued to be confined to specific strands, suggesting that workers were exploring the material and selectively attacking strands. The reasons for this selective attack are unclear, but the results clearly show that the material is unsuitable for situations in which Formosan termites are present.

Fungal exposure

Untreated pine sapwood samples began to fail within 18 months of exposure in the ground proximity test. These results indicated that conditions were suitable for aggressive fungal attack. Merbau and ipe heartwood samples had no evidence of fungal attack for the first 12 months of exposure (Table 1). Slight evidence of fungal damage was noted on specimens of both species after 20 months, but this damage was very slight. Both species have excellent reputations for decay resistance, and these results support those assessments. Bamboo samples were visibly discolored after 6 months of exposure and the damage progressed with continued exposure. Most of the bamboo samples had ratings of 4 after 32 months of exposure, suggesting that they were nearing the end of their effective service life. The stranded bamboo composite appears to be unsuitable for exterior exposure without some type of supplemental treatment.

Juniper sapwood samples experienced slight decay after 6 months, and this damage continued to progress. The condition of the sapwood samples declined to an average rating of 2.2 after 32 months. Juniper heartwood samples were free of fungal attack for the first 12 months of exposure. Samples experienced slight fungal attack after 20 months of exposure and had an average rating of 8 after 32 months of exposure. As with the termite exposures, juniper heartwood was durable, but provided slightly lower decay resistance than either merbau or ipe. Samples composed of mixtures of juniper sapwood and heartwood tended to be only slightly less resistant to fungal attack than samples composed of only heartwood. These results differed from those found with mixed samples exposed to termite attack. While the mixed samples had slightly higher ratings than the sapwood samples after 32 months, this appeared to be more a function of decay resistance of the heartwood component than any effect of the heartwood on adjacent sapwood.

Conclusions

Merbau and ipe heartwood were exceptionally resistant to termite and fungal attack in non-soil contact, while juniper heartwood was slightly less resistant to attack. The presence of heartwood had no effect on durability of adjacent sapwood. The stranded bamboo was more resistant to fungal and termite attack than untreated pine sapwood, but still experienced substantial damage and would not be suitable for exterior, non-soil contact exposure.

Literature Cited

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American Wood Protection Association (AWPA). 2006b. Standard test method for evaluation of preservative treatments for lumber and timber against subterranean termites in above ground, protected applications (UC1 and UC2). Standard E21-06. In: AWPA Annual Book of Standards. AWPA, Birmingham, Alabama.

Arango, R. A., F. Green III, K. Hintz, P. K. Lebow, and R. B. Miller. 2006. Natural durability of tropical and native woods against termite damage by Reticulotermes flavipes (Kollar). Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 57:146-150.

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Liese, W. and S. Kumar. 2003. Bamboo preservation compendium. Technical Report I (INBAR Technical Report 22). Centre for Indian Bamboo Resource and Technology, New Delhi. 231 pp.

Miller, R. B., A. C. Wiedenhoeft, R. S. Williams, W. Stockman, and F. Green III. 2003. Characteristics of ten tropical hardwoods from certified forests in Bolivia. Part II. Natural durability to decay fungi. Wood Fiber Sci. 35(3):429-433.

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The author is Professor, Dept. of Wood Sci. and Engineering, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis (jeff.morrell@oregonstate.edu). This paper was received for publication in October 2011. Article no. 11-00122.

Table 1.--Decay and termite ratings of selected
wood samples after 32 months of exposure in Hilo, Hawaii. (a)

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FOREST PRODUCTS JOURNAL ONLINE

Article Citation:

Yaolin Zhang, Dian-Qing Yang, Xiang-Ming Wang, Martin Feng, and Guangbo He (2015) Fungus-Modified Lignin and Its Use in Wood Adhesive for Manufacturing Wood Composites. Forest Products Journal: 2015, Vol. 65, No. 1-2, pp. 43-47.

doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13073/FPJ-D-14-00034

REVIEWED ARTICLES

Fungus-Modified Lignin and Its Use in Wood Adhesive for Manufacturing Wood Composites*

Yaolin Zhang, Dian-Qing Yang, Xiang-Ming Wang, Martin Feng, and Guangbo He

The authors are, respectively, Chemist & Senior Scientist, Senior Scientist, and Principal Scientist, FPInnovations, Quebec, Quebec, Canada (yaolin.zhang@fpinnovations.ca [corresponding author], dian-qing.yang@fpinnovations.ca, xiang-ming.wang@fpinnovations.ca; and Principal Scientist and Scientist, FPInnovations, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (martin.feng@fpinnovations.ca, guangbo.he@fpinnovations.ca). This paper was received for publication in March 2014. Article no. 14‐00034.

* This article is part of a series of 10 selected articles addressing a theme of efficient use of wood resources in wood adhesive bonding research. The research reported in these articles was presented at the International Conference on Wood Adhesives, held on October 9–11, 2013, in Toronto, Canada. All 10 articles are published in this issue of the Forest Products Journal (Vol. 65, No. 1/2).

Abstract

Organosolv lignins were modified with different fungal species. The modified lignins were used as raw materials for preparing lignin-phenol-formaldehyde (LPF) resins. Oriented strandboard (OSB) panels were produced with these laboratory-synthesized LPF resins for evaluating the bond performance of the LPF resins in the manufacturing of wood composites. Ultraviolet spectroscopy results show that the phenolic hydroxyl contents in the lignins were changed after the lignins were treated with fungi. The lignin modified with the brown-rot fungi extended the gel time of the LPF resin compared with the corresponding unmodified lignin, while the lignin modified with the white-rot fungi shortened the gel time. The OSB test results show that the internal bond strength and the bending properties of the panels bonded with the LPF resins containing the modified lignin were comparable to or better than those of the panels bonded with the commercial phenolic resin or the LPF resin containing the unmodified lignin. It is worth noting that the fungi-modified lignin reduced the thickness swell and water absorption of the OSB panels, implying the water resistance of the LPF resins was improved with the fungi-modified lignin. It is also suggested that up to 50 percent of phenol can be potentially replaced with fungi-modified lignin in phenolic resins used as wood adhesives.

Cited by

Yusuf Celikbag and Brian K. Via. (2016) Characterization of Residue and Bio-Oil Produced by Liquefaction of Loblolly Pine at Different Reaction Times. Forest Products Journal 66:1-2, 29-36.
Online publication date: 30-Mar-2016.
Abstract | Full Text | PDF (394 KB) 

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Species coexistence patterns in a mycophagous insect community inhabiting the wood-decaying bracket fungus Cryptoporus volvatus (Polyporaceae: Basidiomycota)

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGY

Eur. J. Entomol. 107 (1): 89-99, 2010 | 10.14411/eje.2010.012

Kohmei KADOWAKI^*

Laboratory of Insect Ecology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan

A study of the insect community inhabiting the wood-decaying bracket fungus, Cryptoporus volvatus was used to test two hypotheses proposed to account for the competitive coexistence of species in insect communities in patchy environments, niche partitioning and spatial mechanisms. A total of 8990 individuals belonging to 17 insect species emerged from 438 sporocarps (patches) collected from the field. Insect species richness increased and then declined with increase in the total insect biomass reared from a sporocarp, suggesting the potential importance of interspecific competition. Successional niche partitioning explained the spatial distribution of the four specialist species. The aggregation model of coexistence satisfactorily explained the stable coexistence of the species. The specialist species displayed higher population persistence than the generalists. Simulation studies suggest that restricted movements of adults could override patch-level larval aggregation. The effect of such restricted movements on stabilizing coexistence in fungus-insect communities has not been previously appreciated. These findings suggest that spatial mechanisms play a crucial role in the competitive coexistence of the species in the mycophagous insect communities inhabiting bracket fungi.

Keywords: Mycophagous insect, Basidiomycota, Polyporaceae, Cryptoporus volvatus, aggregation model of coexistence, competitive coexistence, patchy environment, spatial mechanism

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