CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

· The consultation recognized that crop diversification is one of the best options to increase farm income leading to food, nutrition and ecological security as well as poverty alleviation in the region. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to crop diversification by the governments of the region. Crop diversification could be approached in two complementary and interactive ways; a) horizontal diversification through expanding the crop base by substituting or adding more crops into the cropping systems as commonly practiced by many countries of the region; and b) through vertical diversification in which downstream activities are undertaken to add value, indicating the stage of industrialization of the crops and their economic returns. Vertical diversification is complementary to horizontal diversification, and the opportunities should be exploited for product diversification and value addition to achieve highest economic returns.

· Efforts have been made by different countries to identify high specialty crops, new crops, off-season varieties and production systems, and novel varieties of crops with comparative advantage, mainly fruits, vegetables and ornamentals, to open up new opportunities for farmers. It was noted that the promotion of multipurpose species would also be useful for diversification of agro-processing on small scale at local/national level for productivity enhancement and expanded employment opportunities.

· Rice is the most important crop in Asia. However, in marginal areas, rice-based cropping systems have relatively low returns. Improving the current cropping systems to enhance their sustainability to the extent possible, and shifting marginal areas out of rice into other more profitable crops is seen as a solution. Alternatively, flexible cropping systems for upland farmers that feature production of more income elastic goods like horticultural products are a means of diversifying their income sources.

· Concerns have been expressed regarding the policies of some countries to reduce the extent of land under major perennial crops and rice; and subsequent repercussions of these will have a long-term bearing. It was noted that such crop replacements unless carefully analyzed might have adverse effects on the food and industrial product supply in the region.

· The need for improved seed and other planting materials for effective crop diversification was recognized. The production of quality seed through national seed programmes and efforts of many countries towards hybrid seed development was noted. The consultation recommended the strengthening of national seed enterprises and promotion of private seed industries to supply quality seed and other planting materials which is so vital for crop diversification. Steps should be taken to maintain effective national and sub-regional seed security in the region through regional collaboration.

· The high post-harvest losses of crop produce particularly in horticultural crops which annually account for 20-40 percent in most countries, if prevented, could increase yield by similar amounts. It was recommended that efforts should be made to minimize such losses. The development of links with the food industry for product diversification and value addition to meet the demands of the changing society was recommended.

· Serious concern was expressed of the soil fertility depletion, due to continued intensive cropping over long periods of time, which needs to be corrected. The use of organic manures as replenishments through direct application or crop rotations and insertion of green manure crops and other food legumes in the cropping systems was recommended.

· Due to the impending labour shortages for agriculture, the need for mechanization of field and post-harvest operations was noted. Need for mechanization of agricultural operations and assessment of the machinery use by the agricultural sector of countries of the region was emphasized. In view of limited land, water and labour supply, the need for adoption of emerging agricultural technologies such as protected agriculture, organic farming, Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was emphasized. Efficient input supply systems through micro-irrigation and fertigation should be encouraged.

· The role of the private sector in the development of modern agro-enterprises to infuse capital and technology into diversified cropping systems for effective commercialization for long term sustainability was advocated.

· The importance of diversification to value-added export oriented crops was emphasized. In that context, the need to study marketing opportunities and product standards required by importing countries, as well as price fluctuations, competitiveness etc., prior to embarking on diversification, was highlighted. Furthermore, the availability of market information was considered essential for identifying promising external markets. In general, there is no point in diversifying into a crop for which market potential is limited.

· Individual countries have developed policies, strategies and implementing mechanisms for crop diversification. These include infrastructure development (transport, communication and markets), pricing policies, subsidies, insurance schemes, tax, tariff etc., in order to minimize risks and safeguard the interests of agricultural entrepreneurs. As the strategies adopted by different countries are innovative and diverse, sharing of such information will benefit the other countries to stabilize and sustain their crop diversification initiatives.

· The governments role in recognizing farmers participation in the total process of crop diversification, provision of information on new crop varieties, technologies to be used, potential yields, marketing avenues and incomes to be realized was essential for the development of successful crop diversification programmes. The need for skill development and capacity building and documentation of required information through the production of field manuals, extension leaflets etc., for use by the entrepreneurs was also considered essential.

· Significant changes are taking place in domestic and international demand for crop products due to improvement in income, better standard of living, and changing life styles and preference patterns such as improved horticultural and livestock products. Trade liberalization and development of transport and communication infrastructure have opened more avenues for trade and have improved access to new and distant markets. This has created new opportunities for crop diversification in various countries.

· The role of FAO as facilitator in the development efforts of crop diversification undertaken by different countries, through holding of seminars and workshops, skills development programmes, information sharing, facilitating germplasm exchanges etc., was recognized. The need for the development of an information database on crop diversification for use by policy makers, farmers, consumers, and other stakeholders was an essential requisite for crop diversification. It was recommended that efforts should be made to compile this database. To facilitate all the above-mentioned activities the establishment of a Network on Crop Diversification for the Region was recommended.

· Recognizing crop diversification as an element of poverty alleviation, income generation, equity and natural resource conservation, and to enhance this, a well designed mechanism has to be developed through the participation of international organizations and local governments to strengthen the initiative undertaken by this region.

For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e0h.htm#CONCLUSIONS%20AND%20RECOMMENDATIONS

ALTERNATIVE CROPS AND CULTIVARS FOR NEW OPPORTUNITIES - Mahmud A. Duwayri*

* Director, Plant Production and Protection Division (AGP), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy.

“Alternative Crops and Cultivars for New Opportunities” is one of the Programme Entities/Projects of the Crop and Grassland Service of the Plant Production and Protection Division of FAO. There are about 150 crop species whichhave already received attention from breeders and commerce and have evolved through human intervention into widely cultivated species. Of these, 10-15 produce half of the world's food and materials. This evolution is, understandably, led by the nations with the most resources and is basically for their own and more stable high input and often subsidized systems. Novel technologies in emerging crops, cultivars, protected agriculture and cropping systems need to be made available to and tested in developing countries, where farmers have a need for stabilization of their specific agro-environments, particularly through establishment of suitable species and high-value cultivars with food, feed, fuel, fibre and pharmacological potential. The identification of alternative crops and improved technologies would aim at providing a comparative advantage within a given agro-ecological and socio-economic context. Sustainable intensification of agriculture without further degradation of natural resources remains a challenge.

Risk reduction through diversification (related to climatic and biotic vagaries, particularly in fragile ecosystems and commodity fluctuations) by expanding locally adapted or introducing novel varieties and related production systems, will contribute to improved food security and income generation for resource poor farmers and protect the environment. Small family farms will not be able to increase their total income to acceptable levels with the production of staple food crops as these are invariably of low value for the farmer/producer. To increase income the farmer needs a higher value product that can be obtained by adding value to primary or secondary products. Fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, flavourings, natural colourants, medicinal plants and others all offer an opportunity for farmers to produce higher value products. Nevertheless, introducing new crops on their own is unlikely to be successful as the whole technological and commercial package needs to be introduced at the same time. Hence, this technical project is based on the introduction of alternative crops with production, processing, marketing technology and nutritional information. The project is closely related to the Special Programme on Food Security as 80 percent of the world's poor live in fragile ecosystems. FAO's multidisciplinary approach and global networking capacity can identify and match new crops and novel cultivars and their production systems to targeted isozones and their peoples for both extensive and intensive applications. A continuing review of technology advance in existing and “new” crops is a pre-requisite and has to be based both on indigenous and international knowledge.

The objective of the Project is the broadening of the crop and cultivar knowledge base for better use of the plant density in support of crop diversification options into targeted eco-zones in relation to food and income security targets and market opportunities.

The major outputs are:

- Integration of fragmented knowledge on lesser-known plants with localized and/or international potential as crops.- Assessment and promotion of high-value crops for distinct agro-ecological environments.
- Introduction to and expansion of palms to Africa.
- Technology transfer for integrated greenhouse crop production and protection management.

Integration of Fragmented Knowledge on Lesser-Known Plants with Localized and/or International Potential as Crops

FAO receives many requests for multidisciplinary information on plant species or novel cultivars for which data exists but is scarce and globally fragmented amongst ethnobotanical observations, publications, institutions, private enterprise and networks in general, including the Internet. This global plant resource is under threat from population pressure and other poverty-related interventions causing habitat destruction and excessive wild harvesting. A narrow major crop base exists in environments often unsuitable to the approximately 150 widely cultivated species developed for 'commercial' environments. This major output will harness knowledge on lesser-known species and their environmental requirements, which will help local institutions to decide on diversification for income stability, food security and environmental stabilization.

FAO's multidisciplinary approach and global networking capacity can identify species contacts and integrate scattered information into an ecologically-related knowledge processing system to better respond to member's and other's requests. Information including illustrations, references, contacts, specific methodologies and glossary terms will be gathered from publications, institutions and individuals and collated into species monographs to be delivered through the Internet, via CD-ROMs and hard-copy downloads. Specifically the output will consist of:

· EcoPort and other knowledge and training management systems developed to target plant species adapted to fragile environments; publications on novel crops and novel varieties of established crops.· Description of Good Agricultural Practices for introduction of new species.
· Species-related training tool on crop production, sustainable utilization and benefits.
· Networks umbrellaed and participation in network meetings.

The Effects of Major Outputs will be:

· Easier access to species-specific and structured information presently not covered by other organizations or institutes resulting in better crop management.· Potential for crop base broadening for food security and income generation in fragile ecologies identified.
· Broader knowledge on use of the species and its products increase in networking partners and knowledge gathering.

The Indicators of Achieving Major Output Effects will be:

· Amount of fragmented information and training material on ecozone adapted species or varieties collected, structured, requested and delivered through the Internet, CD ROMs, FAOR download and hard copy publication and distribution.· Number of species described.
· Number of partners working on specific species.

Assessment and Promotion of High-value Crops for Distinct Agro-Ecological Environments

Within new opportunities, which derive from trade liberalization (GATT Agreement) assistance will be provided to member countries to explore the comparative advantage for developing emerging and high-value horticulture and industrial and specialty crops in accordance to their agro-ecological potential and socio-economic interest. The aim is to achieve the full agronomic and economic potential to meet the changing needs of producers and consumers. Information will be collated and disseminated on the origin and propagation of high quality planting materials and their agronomic performance under distinct agro-ecologies and cropping systems. The advantage of selective high quality produce including “bio-labeled” products will be explored to address specific market niches. Special attention will be given to fostering inter-country cooperation and networking amongst scientific institutions with the aim of facilitating coordinated research and development initiatives and to eventually complement the requirements for those crops, which are presently not dealt with by the CGIAR. In this context, priority will be given to principal emerging crops or new cultivars as diversification options for small-scale farmers and commercial-scale initiatives based on out-growers schemes eventually through technology transfer.

The Effects of the Major Output will be:

· Strengthening of on-going sub-regional, regional and global networking among scientific institutions and other partners.· Improved knowledge and better use of plant bio-diversity towards diversification and use of lesser known crops and cultivars with required agronomic and quality traits for local markets and export opportunities.
· Governments and private sector awareness of the potential for high-value and promising horticultural and industrial crops as a contribution to the global food security strategy.
· Information on high-value crops and cultivars accessible through information materials and database.

The Indicators of Achieving Major Output Effects are:

· Expansion of new crops and cultivars in selective agro-ecological areas.· On-going cooperative research and development initiatives.
· Commercial and small-scale farmers have adopted new crops species and cultivars as a diversification option.
· Database and information material accessed/consulted.

Introduction to and Expansion of Palms in Africa

Semi-arid (including long dry season) regions are often subject to total loss of annual crops through drought or concentrated rains. These crops demand constant soil disturbance in their cultivation, leading to environmental degradation. The establishment of palm species adapted to specific agro-ecological conditions would help to alleviate such fluctuations and help to protect annual crops and to maintain ecological stability. This, in turn, would help in the establishment of a more balanced generic floric and faunic system; vital in sustainable Integrated Crop Management. Palms are prime candidates for income generation, food security and biodiversity enhancement through environmental stabilization, particularly in semi-arid and sub-humid areas. The major and long-term results will fix rural populations in their environment. Medium-term benefits will establish pilot projects upon which institutions can extrapolate to similar ecologies and procure additional funding for expansion.

Through globally integrated networks, including CG centers, FAO can readily identify opportunities for transfer of technology on palm species potentially adapted to the target environments. AGPC has a proven record of success in technology transfer related to this major output (dates and oil palm) which can be expanded to similar edaphoclimatic conditions and with new introductions to these and other environments. Regular Programme pilot establishment projects will lead to funding from TCP and/or donor and commercial participation. Specifically the major output will consist of:

· Descriptions of the species, products and agro-ecological requirements.
· Exchange of information on cultivation techniques.
· An umbrella of related palm networks.
· Pilot introduction or expansion tests.

The Effects of the Major Output will be the following:

Results of pilot projects and provision of technical information will demonstrate the potential for perennial crop base broadening for food security and income generation in fragile ecologies. It will catalyze the use of palms in perennial/annual crop systems and, in the long-term, enhance environmental protection.

The Indicators of Achieving Major Output Effects are:

· Community uptake of transferred technology, requests for expansion.
· Degree of government, donor or private industry involvement.

Technology Transfer for Integrated Greenhouse Crop Production and Protection Management

In the context of liberalized market exchanges, greenhouse crop production technology offers the possibility to engage and compete with high-value horticultural crops and to sustain the production throughout the year for continued market supply with fresh produce. This is of particular interest in meeting the demand for new market niches with vegetable and floriculture products. The real potential for increased productivity, control over quality and timing of the production are the real assets.

In addition, protected cultivation techniques will allow a more efficient use of natural resources and a reduction in the application of pesticides. It should be realized that in the race for increased productivity, farmers have often resorted to the excessive use of inputs and specifically mineral fertilizers, pesticides and also irrigation water. These practices are a threat to soil and ground water pollution leading to health hazards for both the producers and consumers. By growing plants in a controlled environment, the conditions are created for reducing the reliance on pesticides applications and for allowing considerable savings on water and fertilizer requirements while catering for high quality and safe produce with higher market value. Assistance will be provided to member countries through technical advise and training for the adoption of Integrated Greenhouse Production and Protection Management (IGPP) by the farmers. The IGPP strategy is proposed as an integrated package combining crop management, climate control and technology, including substrate and hydroponic cultivation aiming at the reduction in use of water, fertilizers and pesticides.

Capacity building will be provided for the design, construction and assembling of greenhouses within the country in order to create job opportunities and to lower the price. Priority attention will be given to the adoption of agronomic and technological solutions aiming at the avoidance of environmental pollution and meeting the requirements of international standards in regard to LMR (Limit of Maximum Residues) as established i.a. by the EU. Through inter-country cooperation and networking IGPP packages will be experimented and validated. Information will be compiled and circulated through modern communication aids including web-site. Greenhouse crop technology is particularly suited to vulnerable and difficult environments including arid and semi-arid regions of North Africa and the Near East as well as high rainfall areas in the humid tropics of tropical Africa, Latin and Central America, Caribbean, Asia, Pacific and Indian Ocean. Greenhouse crop production is expected to be particularly attractive to the young graduates and other private farmers who look for a more “technified” and business oriented agriculture. This output will strengthen the SPFS and specifically it's “intensification” and “water management” components. It will allow to convert areas with less natural potential into highly productive and income generating agriculture areas. Further more the greenhouse creates an attractive working environment to facilitate the work of women irrespective of the outside weather conditions and time of the year. The final success will depend on the availability of market outlets. Therefore, continuous monitoring of market opportunities need to be made and special attention will also be given to the socio-economic constraints, including access to small credits for the establishment of small-scale, family type greenhouse units.

The Effects of the Major Output will be:

· Awareness about the advantages of Greenhouse Crop Technology.· Increased income and productivity; reduced pesticides applications, improved WUE.
· Countries have formulated a strategy for Greenhouse development within the overall agriculture development policy.
· Knowledge base available about Integrated Greenhouse Production and Protection Management.
· Better crop management practices are applied resulting in better labour comfort and efficiency.
· Business plans have been formulated to promote investment in the Greenhouse crop sector for small-scale farmers.

The Indicators of Achieving Major Output Effects are:

· Greenhouse sector has expanded in different climatic zones (Mediterranean-arid and semi-arid, humid topics).· More young and women entrepreneurs have become greenhouse crop producers.
· Greenhouse policies adopted including MRL standards.
· Increased availability of high quality and safe horticultural produce originating from the greenhouse crop sector meeting the MRL standards.
· Reduction in the use of agro-chemicals (mineral fertilizers and pesticides).
· Improved water use efficiency (WUE).
· Local private workshops established for greenhouse construction and assembling.

For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e0g.htm#ALTERNATIVE%20CROPS%20AND%20CULTIVARS%20FOR%20NEW%20OPPORTUNITIES%20Mahmud%20A.%20Duwayri*

UNCTAD'S PROJECT ON CAPACITY BUILDING FOR DIVERSIFICATION AND COMMODITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT - Alexei N. Mojarov*

Division on International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities (DITC), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Palais Des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.

The international community has recognized that horizontal and vertical diversification by commodity dependent developing countries is a priority for their development and invited the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to provide assistance to developing countries in this respect. Starting from 2000, UNCTAD is embarking upon a two-year Project on Capacity Building for Diversification and Commodity-Based Development. In charge of the Project is UNCTAD's Commodities Branch of the Division on International Trade in Goods and Services and Commodities (DITC).

The Project's objectives are: i) to promote the horizontal, vertical and geographical diversification of production and trade structures; ii) to improve governments' capacities to formulate focused, effective and sequenced policies in this respect; iii) to increase the competence of enterprises in adapting their business strategies and supplies to the Post-Uruguay Round trading framework; and iv) to strengthen positive linkages between the commodity sector and the rest of the economy.

Within the framework of the Project the following activities will be carried out:

a) Preparation of policy oriented studies on export diversification strategies of governments and enterprises, and on development implications of diversification for the exchange of experiences and capacity building.b) Regional workshops for enterprises and government officials, focusing on export diversification strategies of governments and enterprises, and on development implications of diversification.

The workshops will be organized in the four developing regions, namely Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Pacific. These workshops, where not only regional experiences but also those from other regions will be discussed, will provide the framework for national as well as regional or sub-regional capacity building programmes. The regional workshops then will be followed by national workshops expected to be held in 10 countries covering developing regions. The national workshops will bring together the government, the enterprise sector, civil society and relevant international organizations to make proposals on enterprise strategies as well as the most efficient and cost-effective government policies and measures, including those aimed at improving physical and human capacities to promote diversification and to ensure that the disadvantaged segments of the society benefit from diversification, taking into account administrative requirements, sustainability concerns and the social and human context.

The regional workshops for Asia and the Pacific will be organized by UNCTAD in close cooperation with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). The workshop for Asia is tentatively scheduled for the first half of 2001 to be held in Bangkok.

For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e0f.htm#UNCTAD'S%20PROJECT%20ON%20CAPACITY%20BUILDING%20FOR%20DIVERSIFICATION%20AND%20COMMODITYBASED%20DEVELOPMENT%20Alexei%20N.%20Mojarov*

INTENSIFICATION OF CROP DIVERSIFICATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION - H.P.M. Gunasena*

Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

1. INTRODUCTION

Most of the developing countries are dependent on agriculture for their economic as well as industrial development. In some of the Asia-Pacific countries, agriculture is the backbone of the economy and they are sensitive to changes in agricultural production, prices and other related policy options in the Region as well as in the global markets. Agriculture development will remain as the mainstay of the developing countries, in spite of the fact that most of them are moving towards industrialization. Therefore, the role of the agricultural sector in any developing country is focussed on food production, gainful employment, foreign exchange earnings, capital accumulation and labour replacement.

2. AGRICULTURAL LAND VS AGRICULTURAL POPULATION IN THE REGION

The total land area of countries in the Asia-Pacific Region vary widely, being highest in China (932.64 million ha) followed by Australia (768.2 million ha), India (297.3 million ha), Indonesia (181.1 million ha). Many small countries such as Bhutan, Fiji, Republic of Korea, and Sri Lanka have land areas below 10 million ha. Agricultural land as a percentage of total land has shown insignificant variation in the last decade. The average was 20.5 percent in 1988 and 21.0 in 1997; except in developed countries namely Australia, Japan and New Zealand, where some decline has been recorded. However, an interesting feature is the decline in the agricultural population to total population, which is common in the developing countries (66-62 percent) and also in the developed countries (7.6-4.9 percent) from 1988 - 1997. The agricultural population has shifted to the industrial sector not only in the Asia-Pacific Region but also in the whole world. The shift in the population from the agricultural to industrial sector focuses on two major issues on crop intensification in the Region. These are the high cost and the non-availability of labour even at any price during the cropping season. The high cost of labour has burdened agricultural production, particularly in the least developed nations, where labour cost alone account for over 50 percent of the total cost of crop production. The labour shortage is likely to continue, and its repercussion can be adverse unless crop production techniques are rapidly changed. The need for less labour intensive production technologies is emphasized.

The growth of population in the world has been rapid, intensifying the pressure on land. The total population in the Region has increased from 2.6 billion to 2.9 billion from 1988 to 1997. The largest populations are seen in this Region with China exceeding 1.2 billion and India (0.98 billion) which is on the verge of reaching the one billion mark. Of the 5.8 billion people in the world, about 50 percent of the people live in the Asia-Pacific Region. The growth of population is rapid, exceeding 3.5 percent in some countries. On the other hand, the size of an average holding is smallest in the Region, and the land to man ratio has declined rapidly over the years. The per capita agricultural land available in the Asia-Pacific Region in 1961 was 0.35 ha, which declined to 0.27 in 1988 and further reduced to 0.25 ha in 1997. A further decline in land availability is inevitable due to urban development and industrialization in many of those countries, leading to unprofitable units for crop production.

Crop production can be increased by increasing the extents of agricultural land, which as evident from the above becomes an impossible task. The other alternative is to bring additional land under cultivation by expanding into marginal lands in different countries, but these have been almost exhausted and even with heavy investment may remain marginal. Hence, of the available options, increase in intensity of cultivation and in yields per unit area are the only available options to meet future food needs to feed an ever increasing population.

Technologies continue to be developed in various countries that will have an impact on future crop production. Most of these technologies are directed towards increase in yield due to less land availability. In the future, therefore, increases in food production to enhance food and nutrition security have to be achieved through intensive cultivation and high yield and to a minor extent through increase in land areas. Over 75 percent of the high yield increases will arise from improvement of the yield of crops, with the balance from expansion of land area and cropping intensities.

In the future the potential for yield improvement will be through technological innovations. The potential yield increases are likely to be greater in the developing countries than in the developed countries. It could be argued that the yields in the developed countries have reached optimum levels due to the full exploitation of the available technologies, a “technology fatigue”, whereas the yields in the developing countries are always lower than the potential yield under experimental conditions. The yield gaps, which exist in most crops and the actual volumes at varying levels in different countries, point to the need for technologies which are less expensive. Estimates indicate that the yields, obtained in the less developed countries are about half to one third of those of the developed countries and even within the Region wide variations are observed. Therefore, there is much scope to increase the yield of crops.

There is a school of thought that the majority of small-scale farmers could be lifted out of poverty without the use of modern technologies such as improved seed, fertilizer and crop protection chemicals. They believe that soil fertility could be increased by organic manures, farmer bred and maintained indigenous varieties, biological or mechanical control of pests, diseases and weeds and human power to carry out farm operations. Although the low input sustainable agriculture (LISA) is getting popular in some industrialized countries its direct transfer to developing countries will have some resistance. With the present changes in the labour market and global trade, it cannot be applied and may not be relevant to the Asia-Pacific Region.

3. CONCEPT OF CROP DIVERSIFICATION

Crop diversification can be a useful means to increase crop output under different situations. Crop diversification can be approached in two ways. The main form and the commonly understood concept is the addition of more crops to the existing cropping system, which could be referred to as horizontal diversification. For instance, cultivation of field crops in rice fields or growing various types of other crops in uplands have been defined as crop diversification. However, this type of crop diversification means the broadening of the base of the system, simply by adding more crops to the existing cropping system utilizing techniques such as multiple cropping techniques coupled with other efficient management practices. The systems of multiple cropping have been able to increase food production potential to over 30 t/ha, with an increase of the cropping intensity by 400-500 percent. The other type of crop diversification is vertical crop diversification, in which various other downstream activities are undertaken. This could be illustrated by using any crop species, which could be refined to manufactured products, such as fruits, which are canned or manufactured into juices or syrups as the case may be. Vertical crop diversification will reflect the extent and stage of industrialization of the crop. It has to be noted that crop diversification takes into account the economic returns from different crops. This is very different to the concept of multiple cropping in which the cropping in a given piece of land in a given period is taken into account. Besides the above, some other terminologies are also used to define crop diversification. There are terms such as “crop substitution” and “crop adjustment”. It is necessary to indicate here that crop substitution and adjustment are linked to the main concept of crop diversification and are strategies often used to maximize profit of growing varieties of crops. The level of diversification will also be different in various countries. Diversification at farm level will involve growing of several crops for achieving self-sufficiency, but it may be a totally different approach at the national level. Crop diversification at national level will demand more resources and require selection and management of a specific crop or a group of crops sold freshly or value added to achieve higher profits.

There are several advantages of crop diversification, which could be listed as follows:

· Comparatively high net return from crops.
· Higher net returns per unit of labour.
· Optimization of resource use.
· Higher land utilization efficiency.
· Increased job opportunities.

In order to achieve the above benefits the process of diversification should be changed from very simple forms of crop rotations, to intensive systems such as relay cropping and intercropping or specialization by diversifying into various crops, where the output and processing etc., could be different. This process could be similar at farm level and national level.

4. CROP INTENSIFICATION

As stated earlier, primary constraints to achieving food security are the low yield per unit area, high population pressure, and negligible scope for expansion of the area of land for cultivation. Under these circumstances available options will be crop intensification and diversification through the use of modern technologies, especially seeds, fertilizer, irrigation, mechanization of agricultural production, post-harvest processing, storage, marketing and development of new technologies by research.

4.1 Crop Nutrition

A major contribution towards increased yield and sustained production could be achieved by using fertilizers and manures. The actual usage of fertilizers is generally lower in the developing countries than in developed countries and dangers of overuse, as observed mostly in the highly industrialized countries, has not been a problem. Organic matter usage has been less in most countries, but its incorporation into the agricultural systems will make the soils fertile and less degradable. Several problems exist in the use of organic manures such as the volume required, time, labour and opportunity costs. Another recent development is in the development of crop rotations, a strategy towards diversification of agricultural systems to increase productivity and crop yields. This involves the insertion of green manure cover crops or other legumes in the cropping systems as seen in several countries. The popular crop mixes are legumes in maize and other cereals.

The consumption of fertilizers in terms of plant nutrients is a reliable indicator of nutrient usage by different countries in the Region. During 1973-1983 nutrient consumption increased from 17 to 35 million metric tonnes. During 1988-1997 further increases have been recorded from 47 to 63 million metric tonnes in developing countries of the Region, with an average annual growth rate of 3.7 percent. The countries using the highest rates of fertilizer nutrients were China (36 m Mt) and India (16 m Mt). The developed countries of the Region (Australia, Japan and New Zealand) also recorded average annual growth rates of 9.3 percent.

Although the rate of fertilizer used has increased, per hectare usage has been less impressive. Many of the developing countries use less than 20 kg nutrients per hectare and this is regarded as a major reason for low yields. In 1997, the highest rates of fertilizer/ha have been used by the Republic of Korea (471 kg/ha) followed by China (266 kg/ha), Vietnam (218 kg/ha) and Malaysia (158 kg/ha). Among the developed countries of the Region Japan has used the highest amount of nutrients (366 kg/ha) followed by New Zealand (211 kg/ha).

Further analysis of nutrient usage indicates that a large proportion of the fertilizer is used in rice cultivation and insignificant amounts for other field crops. It is necessary to increase the use of fertilizers and manures to ensure high crop responses to the applied nutrients. It is also necessary to encourage the use of organic fertilizers to renovate soils and improve their physical and chemical properties and biological activity. Slow release organic fertilizers are also used in some countries where about 80 percent of total nitrogen is present as organic nitrogen. At normal soil temperatures of around 27° C, about 60 percent of this nitrogen is released over the first four months. The losses due to leaching and volatilization will be less, hence the efficiency may exceed that of mineral fertilizers in the locations where these processes are likely to occur.

4.2 Agricultural Mechanization

Farm power includes human, animal and mechanical sources. In developing countries 80 percent of the farm power comes from humans. There is a trend for the shift of labour from agriculture to industry in most of the developing countries. This has already taken place in the developed countries. This would mean that the few remaining people in agriculture would be required to produce food for more and more people living in urban areas, showing 7 percent growth per year. Besides, labour costs are escalating, accounting for a high proportion of the cost of production. For instance in Sri Lanka, approximately 50 percent of the total cost in rice production is accounted for by labour. Sometimes, labour is not even available at any price during cropping seasons and lands are left fallow due to shortage of labour. On an average a farmer using his own labour could feed himself and three others, using draft power he can feed 6 persons and use of tractor could increase the number to over 50. Hence, it will be futile to believe that the regional food demand could be met by traditional farming systems. Therefore, mechanization will be an urgent need for all developing countries in the Asia-Pacific Region and benefits of machinery use are generally apparent.

The use of appropriate farm machinery in the production chain will make farming more efficient and enable farmers to diversify cropping by growing more crops. In many countries mechanization at various levels has lead to improved yields and high labourer productivity. It is reported that in China use of mechanization has led to 10 percent yield enhancement and 15 percent if irrigation is included. Use of machinery for harvesting and processing increases yield by simply reducing crop losses. The post-harvest losses in developing countries are reported as 20-40 percent. Saving this amount is equal to increasing the yield without any added costs. Use of agricultural machinery shows an upward trend in the Region. Agricultural tractors in use have increased from 2.2-3.3 million over the period 1977-1987 showing a growth rate of 4.2 percent. Some countries of the Region have developed local agricultural machinery manufacturing industries. Sri Lanka has made remarkable advancements in the commercial manufacture of water pumps, paddy, threshers, dryers, ploughs, puddle wheels, pruning shears, sprayers, milling machines etc., at prices affordable by the farming communities.

It is, therefore, necessary to make realistic assessment of the use of machinery in the agriculture sector with adequate government support to develop an agricultural machinery industry in the Region, to counteract the labour shortages during the growing seasons.

4.3 Irrigation

Water, which was considered a free resource in many countries, has suddenly become a scarce commodity and major threat to food production and food security. According to the International Water Management Institutes nearly 1.4 billion people, a quarter of the world population or a third of those living in developing countries, will face severe water scarcities in the first quarter of the century (Seckler, 1999). While the regional water consumption is increasing rapidly, the water supply is decreasing. The increasing demand for water has several components, while agriculture uses a large proportion of water, non-agricultural water uses are also increasing. Urbanization and higher per capita availability are the main reasons for increased water use. Per capita water availability is already declining rapidly. In Asia, water availability has decreased from 99,600 m³ in 1952 to 3,300 m³ in 1999. It is predicted that water availability for domestic and industrial use will increase in developing countries from 13 percent to 27 percent in 2020. When water is rationed industry and domestic supply are protected and agriculture will have to make the best out of what is left.

In the Asia-Pacific Region about 35 percent of the agricultural land is irrigated showing an increase of 6 percent from 1988 - 1997. The irrigated area as percentage of agricultural land in Pakistan is over 81 percent, DPR Korea 73 percent, Japan 63 percent, and the Republic of Korea 60 percent, while in the other countries the figures vary from 1.1 percent in Fiji to 1.4 percent in Bangladesh. The total agricultural land under irrigation has increased from 130 million ha to 158 million ha from 1988-1997. Large extents are in China (52 million ha), India (57 million ha) and Pakistan (17.6 million ha). In the other countries land under irrigation varies widely. There appears to be potential for further increases in irrigated land in most countries of the Region.

However due to the impending water scarcities in various countries some strategies and action plans may be required to alleviate any adverse situations. The following strategies could be used to overcome these problems:

· Ensure productive use of water in surplus areas for food production without being under-utilized owing to adequate food supplies.· Develop markets or international mechanisms for reallocation of food from surplus to deficit areas.
· Reduce pollution of surface and ground water due to unscientific irrigation practices.
· Construct reservoirs for harvesting excess water especially in monsoonal regions.
· Conserve water by better irrigation management practices such as drip irrigation.
· Re-use and recycle waste water.
· Transfer water from surplus locations as already practiced in some countries of the Region.

The principle of micro-irrigation to deliver water to the root zone as the crop needs it, is no less valid for fertilizer. The combination of irrigation water with fertilizer, known as “fertigation” will be an obvious solution to get maximum benefits from their inputs while conserving the environment. Micro-irrigation will be an efficient tool to increase water use efficiency and its adoption is increasing. In Israel where these technologies have been perfected, the micro-irrigated area has increased from 10,000 ha in 1975 to 104,000 ha in 1999. FAO estimates that about 30,000 ha in the Near East Region or around 1.4 percent of the total area is under irrigation. In the Asia-Pacific Region also micro-irrigation is catching up. In Sri Lanka many crops such as banana, vegetables and other floriculture crops, coconut etc., are micro-irrigated. This method has many advantages: all nutrients are applied in soluble form and are readily available to the roots; absorption and precipitation processes in the soil are minimized, which is particularly important in the case of P and K; nutrients are placed in the active root zone increasing fertilizer use efficiency and reducing labour cost; and nutrient formula and ratio can be changed according to the crop. These changes can be made at different growth stages, and small doses at frequent intervals minimize osmotic stress in crops grown under saline conditions. Therefore, fertigation could economize on both water and nutrient use, and hence it can conserve natural resources and protect the environment.

There is significant scope for increasing food production through integration of water-based production and services. These include integrating aquaculture and fisheries, a concept referred to as the farming of aquatic organisms into agricultural development efforts.

4.4 Use of Improved Seed

Improved seed is one of the major contributors to crop diversification through development of appropriate cropping systems. The quality seed development at national level will be essential for yield improvement. The increase in annual yield of rice from 1.9 percent in the 1970's to 28 percent during the 1990's was attributed to use of improved seed coupled with better management practices. In most of the countries, estimated area planted to HYVs has increased as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Estimated Areas planted to HYVs and Hybrid Rice (percentage of total rice areas) in Major Rice-Producing Countries of Asia

Country	1989		1997
	HYVs1	Hybrid Rice2	HYVs	Hybrid Rice3
Bangladesh	40.7	-	65.0	-
India	62.0	-	70.0	Neg
Indonesia	73.0	-	85.0	-
Myanmar	51.9	-	51.9	-
Philippines	88.5	-	93.0	-
Sri Lanka	90.0	-	95.0	-
Vietnam	-	-	85.0	Neg
China	-	50.0	45.0	50.0

¹ IRRI, 1995² Yuan, 1996
³ FAO estimate (Neg = hybrid rice was planted to about 120,000 ha in India and about 180,000 ha in Vietnam)

Among other cereals, the highest coverage under modern varieties is for wheat. It is estimated that more than 70 percent of the wheat acreage in major wheat producing countries (Bangladesh, China, India and Pakistan) is under improved varieties. In other crops, use of improved varieties is not extensive, but there is plenty of scope as farmers are quite responsive to the new varieties and have increasingly adopted them as and when they are released for cultivation.

4.5 Protected Agriculture

The most recent addition to crop diversification is the introduction of crop production under controlled environments. This concept known as protected agriculture has made rapid headway, becoming popular among middle income agriculturists. Protected agriculture or controlled environment agriculture is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth. In these systems various factors of the environment such as air, temperature, humidity, atmospheric gas composition, nutrient factors etc., are controlled. These technological developments coupled with use of high quality crop varieties are integrated into a system of agricultural production, which is referred to as protected agriculture.

The main forms of protected agriculture include the use of mulches, row covers and poly-tunnels. It has been a common practice to use organic mulches such as straw, dead leaves, coir dust etc., to modify the environment to make soil more favourable (weed and moisture control) for plant growth. However, in the recent past these low cost agronomic practices have received less attention from the farmers. Plastic mulches are also used for the production of high-value crops and pineapple plantations in Hawaii. Plastic mulches with drip irrigation are widely used as irrigation water and fertilizers (fertigation) could be applied together with the added advantage of reducing cost of production. Row covers have also been used since the 1950's. These are polyester sheets stretched over rows of plants as seen in tobacco nurseries. These also help to prevent crop damage by insects, sunlight and sometimes frost in cooler areas. These technologies are used with other related technologies, such as hydroponics and drip irrigation and these are the major areas of protected agriculture practiced in different countries. In Sri Lanka, poly-tunnels, drip irrigation and hydroponics are commonly practised and demonstrations have been established by the Department of Agriculture.

In most countries soil is the medium used to grow vegetables and other crops. When plants are grown in the soil several problems are encountered due to many soil borne diseases and pests. These problems increase the cost of production due to the use of pesticides and soil fumigants. This has lead to the use of hydroponics. Hydroponics culture/soil-less-culture is a means of growing plants in a nutrient medium without soil to support them. This method began around the 1930's on a commercial scale with research conducted on many aspects by the University of California, USA. Hydroponics culture will facilitate growing of plants in areas with marginal conditions for crop production, such as adverse climate, soil, disease and pest occurrences. The controlled system with soil-less-culture could be used to obtain high yields but requires good management skills for successful crop production.

Many benefits could be obtained by practicing controlled environment agriculture. Some of the major benefits could be summarized as follows:

The land available for agricultural production is continuously decreasing due to the development of industries, urbanization, housing projects etc. The per capita agricultural land in the Region at present is only 0.25 ha. Therefore, future food production will have to come through intensive cropping on small extents of land and crop production strategies may have to be changed. It is here that the protected agriculture has to be considered due its specific advantages in food production.

Labour is a major limitation in open field agriculture. As protected agriculture requires less labour, it could offset the initial high investment.

Excessive uses of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, frequent cultivation, and lack of proper erosion control systems are constant threats to the environment. As input use, particularly fertilizers and pesticides, is controlled in protected agriculture, not only will it be economical in terms of input use but also environmentally friendly and provide products of high quality free of pesticide residues for human consumption.

In drought prone areas, scarcity of water during periods of droughts, and irregular rainfall has been responsible for crop losses. Under controlled agriculture water use is controlled and is minimal. This will be a major advantage in introducing protected agriculture to dry regions.

The major advantage of protected agriculture is high crop yield compared with open field agriculture. These high yields are achieved through the provisions of optimum conditions such as balanced plant nutrition for plant growth, which the open field agricultural operations can never provide.

It is very essential to develop low cost poly-tunnels so that the system could be adopted by many entrepreneurs. The development of structures with locally fabricated material having sufficient durability should be undertaken to make the systems affordable to as many groups of the farming community as possible.

Another major issue is regarding the type of crops having a competitive advantage that could be grown. The diversification into selection of high-value crops that have markets both locally and overseas and those with high genetic potential for yield and quality will be essential for success. Today, some of the crops grown under controlled environments include: tomato, sweet corn, red, green and yellow bell peppers, strawberry, cauliflower, cucumbers, cantaloupe, lettuce, green peas and ornamentals/cut flowers. To achieve maximum benefit these systems will require easy access to good seed, preferably hybrid seeds, which are commonly used in advanced countries. There is a need to study the feasibility of developing hybrid seeds as imports will be costly and non-affordable by the farmers as they will have to be replenished every season.

Standard methodologies should be developed for crop selection, raising seedlings, production methods, irrigation/fertilizer application, pest control (particularly IPM), which could be used in these high-tech systems. Research and development will be required to refine existing technologies as appropriate to different ecological regions of different countries.

The main markets for protected agricultural products are the super markets, airline caterers, hotel industry and exports to a limited extent. There should be market intelligence, which should be provided to the growers, processors and exporters to encourage and maximize profits.

4.6 Organic Farming

Organic farming includes all types of agricultural production systems, which are environmentally, socially, and economically sound. It has been defined differently by several workers, but all of them lay much emphasis on soil and environment conservation. It is also different to traditional farming in that it involves a holistic approach to sustainable agriculture. This form of crop diversification has spread on the continent, particularly in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Sweden and Finland and is spreading into the Asian and African continents. The demand for organically grown food is gaining momentum all over the world. The USA market volume for organic produce is in the region of 5 billion US Dollars. It is also increasing in developing countries. The question often asked is whether organic farming could feed the rapidly growing world population? This is debatable; but even with the “Green Revolution” with plentiful use of chemical fertilizers, over 800 million people of the world are starving and many may die of hunger.

4.7 Role of the Farming Community

In crop diversification towards sustainability, far greater emphasis should be given to farmer participation in adopting and implementing new technologies. It is also necessary to combine farmers' traditional knowledge with the contribution of sciences, solicited in a way that addresses their needs, values and objectives. Crop diversification strategies have failed in most cases due to ignorance of farmer involvement and external and internal factors that effect the system. One of the major issues is also crop selection. In rice-based crop diversification, crop selection does not pose a severe problem as it depends on the soil type. In upland crop diversification, crop selection and management depends on market values and past experience. A sustainable programme of diversification could be achieved only through farmer participation in the planning process. According to Marambe et. al. (1999) for crop diversification in minor irrigation schemes in Sri Lanka, the major factors are the decisions made on selection of crops and efficiency of resource allocation and utilization.

4.8 New Technology Development

Asian Agriculture has benefited from innovative front line research during the past two decades. Rapid progress has been made in cereal production due to the development of high yielding varieties of rice, wheat and maize. Cereal breeding, including the production of hybrids, is continuing which will enhance crop production in the Region.

Modern biotechnology in which characteristics based on single genes can be transferred from any organism to plants has resulted in transgenic plants combining disease or insect or herbicide tolerance. Therefore, the emerging genetic technologies could be beneficial to farmers due to their cost effectiveness. On a global level, transgenic crops increased from 2.8 to 12.8 million ha from 1996 to 1997. The industrialized countries grow large extents (75 percent) while developing countries (especially China in the Region) grow only 25 percent. The use of transgenic crops has come under severe scrutiny in recent times and some countries have completely banned their import until the actual situation is clarified.

The development and utilization of new technologies have to be supported at the national level, both in terms of capacity building with appropriate training, and policies programmes, and mechanisms for their implementation. Increased resources for agricultural research and development are essential so that conventional and biotechnological applications can be accelerated and integrated to produce high yielding crops and safer foods. It is now widely acknowledged that conventional technologies will be less than adequate to double food production, and biotechnology will be an essential strategy to achieve food security in the Region.

REFERENCES

IRRI. 1995. World Rice Statistics. 1993-94. Los Banos, Philippines

Yuan, L.P. 1996. Hybrid rice in China. In Hybrid rice technology, Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, India 51-54.

Marambe B, Sangakkara, U.R. and Azharul Haq, K. 1996.. Crop Diversification Strategies for Minor Irrigation Schemes. Proceedings of Workshop, 20 Feb. 1966, IMMI, Sri Lanka.

Seckler, D. 1999. Water scarcity and challenge of increasing water use efficiency and productivity. Sustainable Agriculture Solutions. Novello Press, London, 116-126.

For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e0e.htm#INTENSIFICATION%20OF%20CROP%20DIVERSIFICATION%20IN%20THE%20ASIAPACIFIC%20REGION%20H.P.M.%20Gunasena*

CROP DIVERSIFICATION IN VIET NAM - Nguyen Van Luat*

Rice Research Institute, Omon, Cantho, Vietnam.

1. INTRODUCTION

Crop diversification as understood in Viet Nam is defined as the strategy of shifting from less profitable to more profitable crops, changing of variety and cropping system, increasing exports and competitiveness in both domestic and international markets, protecting the environment, and making conditions favourable for combining Agriculture-Fishery-Forestry-Livestock.

Before 1989, when Viet Nam was a net food importer, crop diversification was studied under the National Cropping Systems Project based on rice and under the International Farming Systems Network, coordinated by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). The Project aimed mainly to increase food production.

2. CROP PRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC SCENARIO

2.1 Crop Production

There are 18 major food crops, in addition to the main fruit species, cultivated in Viet Nam. The cultivated area, yield and production of these crops are presented in Table 1. Rice occupies around 85 percent of the total area under rice, corn, sweet potato and cassava.

Data from Statistical Publishing House (Hanoi, 1999) show that the total area under crops was increased by 2,665,000 ha from 1990 to 1998. The increase of food crop area was the lowest (20.1 percent). The perennial industrial crop area was the highest (83.4 percent). Vegetables, annual industrial crops and fruit crops, increased by 50 percent as compared to the extents of 1990. Diversification on rice land has decreased, especially in the Mekong Delta, because of the fluctuation of prices of upland crop products grown in rotation with rice or through diversification of rice land. Farmers have frequently met with risks and uncertainty in prices. In the Mekong Delta non-rice food crops only contributed 10 percent to food production.

2.2 Economic Scenario of the Agricultural Sector

Crops, fishery and forestry contributed to the national GDP in 1990 to the tune of 40.7 percent, which decreased to 23.5 percent in 1998, although the net value increased by a big margin.

In terms of value structure, agriculture shared above 80 percent of the total value from agriculture, fisheries and forestry (1995-1998). In the rural economy, agricultural production accounted for around 80 percent with animal husbandry (17 percent) and services (3 percent) making up the remainder. The country is trying to increase the proportion of the value structure from animal husbandry and services through industrialization and modernization.

With regard to trade of agricultural products, rice, rubber, coffee, tea, cashew nut, peanut, black pepper and other horticultural commodities are exported. Agricultural products imported are cotton, edible oil, milk and tobacco. Major crops for export are shown in Table 2. In 1999, 4.5 million tonnes of milled rice were exported from Viet Nam, which became the second largest rice exporter, after Thailand.

Table 1. Cultivated Area, Yield and Production of the Major Crops

Crop	Area (1000 ha)	Production (1000 tonnes)	Yield (quintal/ha)
Paddy rice	7,362.4	29,141.7	39.6
Corn	649.7	1,612.0	24.8
Sweet potato	254.9	1,517.3	59.5
Cassava	231.6	1,783.4	77.0
Vegetables	401.4	5,150.0	128.3
Beans	221.5	144.1	6.5
Cotton	20.2	20.7	10.2
Jute, kanef	8.7	18.6	21.3
Rush	11.0	67.0	60.9
Sugar cane	283.0	13,843.5	489.2
Peanut	269.4	386.0	14.3
Soybean	127.8	141.3	11.1
Tobacco	31.2	31.7	10.2
Coffee	370,602	409.3	-
Tea	79,180	229,540	-
Rubber	389,778	199,733	-
Coconut	142,504	105,450	-
Cash crops	196,003	53,251	-
Fruit crops	438.4	-	-

Source: Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi, 1999.

Table 2. Main Crops for Export (thousand tonnes)

Crop	1990	1995	1996	1997	1998
Milled Rice	1.624	1.998	3.003	3.553	3.800
Tea	16.1	18.8	20.8	32.2	34.0
Coffee	89.6	248.1	283.7	389.3	379.0
Rubber	75.9	138.1	194.5	194.5	185.0
Peanut	70.7	111.0	127.0	83.0	87.0
Cashew nut	24.7	99.0	16.5	33.3	30.0
Black pepper	9.0	17.9	25.3	23.0	23.0

Source: Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi, 1999.

3. PATTERNS OF CROP DIVERSIFICATION

3.1 Crop Diversification in Rice Land

Rice is cultivated mainly in the Red River and Mekong River deltas. It is difficult to practice crop diversification in the rainy season in both river basins. From November to May or June, upland crop(s) can be grown in rotation with rice if farmers have the capacity to invest on inputs and can get net returns from such cropping patterns. Upland crops in rotation with 2 rice crops are considered as “sub-crop(s)”, for which farmers need not pay taxes.

In the Red River Delta, farmers have experience in growing an upland crop between two rice crops. Spring rice is harvested in June and early 'Mua' rice crop is harvested at the beginning of November. The possible upland crops to follow in this cropping pattern are potato, vegetables, beans etc., or at the end of October it could be corn, sweet potato or soybean. They are sown immediately after harvesting rice to avoid low temperature in winter. Short duration and non-photosensitive rice varieties are chosen for the early Mua rice crop. When necessary, crop seedlings for each hill are prepared by sowing seed in separate boxed seedbeds made of leaves or plastic. Sometimes farmers put seedlings of the upland crop in rice fields about 10 days before harvesting the rice crop. Such cropping systems (rice-rice-upland crop) are practiced on hundreds of thousands of hectares in the North, including the Red River Delta. Farmers can get more cash from the upland crops, especially by growing temperate vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower and potato which can yield 15-20 tonnes/hectare. There is a residual effect from the upland crop for the subsequent spring rice crop which includes minimizing land preparation and weed control costs, and spending less on fertilizer.

In the Mekong delta, there is no problem of low temperatures. Farmers have grown many upland crops in rotation with rice, except crops of temperate origin such as cauliflower. Farmers grow winter-spring rice from November to February, then follow up with an upland crop before summer-autumn rice. It is interesting to note that in Longxuyen quadrangle, peanut has been grown on heavy soils (60 percent clay) on thousands of hectares, which can yield 3-4 tonnes/hectare. The soils in this region are perhaps high in organic matter (5-6 percent) and the difference of diurnal day/night temperature is high (6-10°C). In terms of residues for the next rice crop, groundnut and vegetable soybean (65 days) are considered the best. Generally, no tillage is applied for upland crops. After burning rice straw, farmers make planting holes and place the seed. One of the problems of crop intensification for crop diversification on rice land is damage from floods in the rainy season. Floods occur from the middle of August and recede in November. Farmers are attempting to experiment with new technologies to overcome such constraints, for example, by using rice varieties with a duration below 90 days, or to apply a method of water seeding for the winter-spring rice crop in order to shorten the duration of the crop in the field.

In the 1960's and 1970's, Azolla was cultivated on a large scale in about 0.5 million hectares in the north, especially in the Red River Delta. Azolla could replace 30-50 percent of N fertilizer for winter-spring or spring rice crop, but this practice has since been abandoned. The reason is that Azolla cultivation requires a lot of labour with very precise conditions in the winter season and farmers had to spray insecticides and apply phosphorous fertilizer every 5 days. They also had to manage water and remove dew to dry Azolla every day when temperature was low (below 15° C), if not, Azolla would die. Leguminous crops such as groundnut, soybean, mungbean for either cash crop or green manure are feasible cultivation alternatives under these conditions. These leguminous crops can be grown in rotation with rice or intercropped with corn as well. Data from production experiments show that vegetable soybean (65 days for green soybean, 90 days for soybean seed) and peanut are the best for the above purpose, grown either as a cash crop or for green manure. Yield of the following rice crop can be increased by 20-30 percent, or it can decrease N requirement by 30-40 kg/ha. When grown as an intercrop with corn, spacing of 80 cm × 25 cm should be replaced by spacing of 120 cm × (25 × 40 double lines), as by these configurations the corn population will have the same plant density of 50,000 plants/hectare, which gives the same yield. Three lines with 40 × 20 cm of leguminous crop can be grown between two lines of corn with a spacing of 120 cm.

3.2 Crop Diversification on Sloping Land

The movement of soil, water and nutrients is the major problem on sloping land. For example, the Red River Basin is located on a split topography with steep slopes measuring 19-37 percent on the average and the Red River, therefore, annually loads 137 billion cusecs of water with a substantial amount of soil and nutrients, leading dramatically to erosion and rapid degradation of soils. Serious deforestation in the past for agriculture development reduced forest cover to 28 percent, but in recent years (1999) it has increased to 33 percent by using different measures.

According to the results of surveys of the National Institute for Soils and Fertilizer (1998), in the North the crop yields have decreased from year to year after clearing forest for crop cultivation. Some of the results are given below:

Crop Yields after the Third Year of Shifting Cultivation (kg/ha)

Crop	First Year	Second Year	Third Year
Upland Rice	1,300	700	400
Corn	2,500	1,500	600
Cassava	12,000	8,000	5,000

Depletion of the Organic Matter (0-30 cm depth) after Forest Cleaning

Cultivation Cycle	Organic Matter (%)
First year after forest cleaning	3.5
After 5 years of tea cultivation	2.5
After 5 years of cassava cultivation	0.9

Human activities under severe population pressure and poverty conditions often neglect erosion control measures on cultivated sloping land, although the best control measures are to keep a forest cover or re-forest, or to plant perennial industrial or fruit crops. In this situation, methods of farming activities are recommended such as planting crops on the contour, in combination with agro-forestry and intercropping.

Leguminous plants such as Sesbania cannabina, Crotalaria strata, Cassia tora, Vigna indica, Tephrosia candida, Leucaena glauca and Medicago hispida, are used on sloping land either for soil loss reduction or green manure. Cropping patterns of cassava with intercropped peanut and Tephrosia candida as hedgerows, or hedgerow tea culture on the contour with mulching using rice straw can reduce soil loss by 60 percent or 80 percent, respectively, as compared to traditional cassava monoculture.

4. EFFECT OF CROP DIVERSIFICATION

4.1 Food and Nutrition Security

Products from crop diversification can be used for food and nutrition security. According to surveyed data in recent years milled rice use per capita decreased by about 1-2 kg/month; whereas there is an increased consumption of other products from agriculture (vegetable, fruits, sesame, peanut, mungbean, chicken, egg, pork, etc.) and from fisheries (fish, shrimp, crab) as a result of diversification of agricultural systems.

Data from surveys in Ho Chi Minh City in 1993 and 1996 showed that per capita/month consumption of milled rice decreased from 10.3 kg to 7.8 kg; whereas meat, fish, and egg consumption increased from 1.44 kg to 1.7 kg, 1.8 kg to 2.2 kg and 7 to 8.7, respectively. There is evidence of an increased consumption of fruits and vegetables. It is also evident that the volume of milled rice exported from Viet Nam is increasing from year to year. This is not only because of rice production increases, but also the improved eating pattern has contributed to this, since rice per capita consumption has decreased.

4.2 Judicious Use of Land, Water and Other Resources for Income Growth, Poverty Alleviation and Employment

Farming systems (popularly known as 'VAC') have become a popular movement throughout the country, led by the National and Provincial Horticulturist Associations, and supported strongly by the government. VAC can be considered as an economical and ecologically stable system within the framework of small farming households amounting to 13 million. Farmers are able to diversify not only crops, but also fisheries and forestry as well. From the original idea of 'VAC', there are several variations to the concept according to different situations and conditions, such as biogas production, field crops husbandry, agriculture, cropping hilly areas, agro-forestry, etc. There are many farmers growing traditional pesticide-free vegetables such as Moringa oleifera lamk., Basella rubra L., Telosma cordata Merr. and traditional medicinal plants for the “green medicine box”, such as barleria lupulina for healing toothache, and Paederia lanuginose Wall for healing abdominal pains, as well as organically grown vegetables. Hence, these are clean vegetables and clean herbal medicines, devoid of any fertilizer or pesticides in their culture.

Farmers in the Mekong Delta exploit the favourable conditions for practicing crop diversification. Because of the experience of flooding in the rainy season every year and drought condition in the dry season, farmers dig small canals around their fields, and make dikes to prevent submergence of farms. Ditches and dikes also help to keep water when flood waters recede. There are drainage pipes through these dikes to take water with silt and aquatic fauna and to wash away acid from decomposing organic matter when necessary. Framers call such a system 'Vuong'. On the dike they plant many crops, feed fish and/or shrimp in canals, and grow rice crops in the fields. Before the arrival of floods, they harvest the rice and fish, and when floods recede, fish colonize the canals once again as the next rice crop is planted. Farmers can, and have to minimize chemical usage to protect the fish/shrimp in canals and the poultry and pigs living on the dikes.

There are some advanced techniques used for increasing rice production, decreasing water use and other material inputs, and making appropriate conditions for diversifying crops in rotation with rice, or feeding fish or ducks with insects that inhabit the rice fields. Some of these techniques are described as follows:

An Improved Sowing Method for Rice in the Mekong Delta

Out of the 4 million hectares of rice grown, there are more than 3.5 million hectares where they apply the broadcasting method (the rest is transplanted) with a very high seed rate of 200-250 kg or even higher. These farmers are now using the row-seeding method with the improved IRRI Seeder to replace manual broadcasting. The results from tens of thousands of hectares in all 12 provinces of the region show that application of the row-seeding method can save at least 100-150 kg rice seed/hectare, making better conditions for feeding fish or ducks in rice fields, decreasing damage by rats and other pests, and with a concomitant paddy yield increase of up to 20 percent.

Use of Very Short Duration Rice Varieties to Reduce Rice Crop Duration in the Field

From 1985, the Cuulong Delta Rice Research Institute (CLRRI) has conducted a breeding programme for rice varieties named 'OMCS', which developed short duration types of less than 90 days. Many such OMCS varieties have been released on a million hectares, not only in the Mekong Delta, but also in the South Central region, while some of them used in the North are OMCS7 and OMCS96. The results from research and production on a large scale demonstrate that the very short duration rice varieties (80-90 days) can grow and yield normally. Many of them can yield nearly 7-8 t/ha with high grain quality and resistance to several pests and diseases. Although agro-techniques for these varieties are new to farmers, they prefer to use them to escape from floods in the wet season, from drought and saline intrusion in the dry season, and have the advantage of saving more cropping days for other crops, or for crop intensification. Attempts are also being made to adopt the seedling broadcasting method from China (preparing seedlings for each hill in plastic plates with small holes). Adopting this method and using OMCS varieties, it is possible to shorten the duration of the rice crop in the field by 20-25 days.

5. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK

In each agro-climatic zone, there are certain physical constraints. Generally, the main constraints in mountainous, hilly, and middle elevation terraces are erosion, drought, temperature, and soil degradation. Typhoons, floods, low temperatures and pests; and floods, drought and pest infestation are the main physical constraints in the North and South delta, respectively. However, socio-economic constraints are considered as the challenges for the whole country. High inputs for crop production and low quality of crop products are the main problems because of low technology levels applied by many farmers. Credit, post-harvest technology and lack of proper infrastructure facilities are also constraints for crop diversification for the development of sustainable agriculture.

Viet Nam is trying to overcome the above mentioned constraints for agricultural development as well as for crop diversification, in order to meet the requirements of domestic consumption and trade. There are long-term as well as short-term programmes in applying new technologies to improve crop production. National programmes for the development of new crop varieties and animal races, as well as biotechnology in agriculture, are being funded by the national government.

Out of 22 agriculture research institutes, there are 15 institutes working directly on crops, 5 institutes serving crop production, irrigation and water management, planning and projecting, and policy formulation. They have responsibilities in studying and applying biotechnology, geographic information systems, informatics for planning crop production, breeding new crop varieties, post-harvest and processing, formulating policies for the government, and suggesting development strategies under varying conditions. The mandate of agricultural research institutes is to experiment and explore ways of improving technology for better effectiveness.

Agricultural extension systems are organized for villages, districts and provinces by the central government and are coordinated by the Department of Agricultural Extension. There are provincial extension centres for each province, and extension agencies or extension group at district or village level. Besides extension agencies, there are other extension organizations or activities of people's associations, companies, institutes and universities. All of them pay more attention to crop production.

Crop diversification will be given due attention, because of the requirement of improving consumption patterns, as well as for the benefit of all farmers who comprise approximately 80 percent of the population. Total calories from food of farmers and the poor are based on rice by 80 percent. This dependence should be gradually decreased to 60 percent, replaced by edible oil, vitamins, food rich in protein such as soybean, sesame, fruits, vegetables, peanuts, meat and fish. In terms of trade, total income from different kinds of crop products will be higher and more stable in local as well as in international markets. Finally, strategies for crop diversification have been developed and are available for implementation.

6. COUNTRY STRATEGY FOR CROP DIVERSIFICATION

In the past, when Viet Nam had to import food to meet the need for food security, food production had to be developed at any price, including clearing forest to plant cassava, upland rice, corn etc., on sloping land, resulting in severe erosion. Nowadays, the direction for agricultural development following the current strategy is to develop all aspects of agriculture based on national food security within the limits of resource availability. The strategy is also geared to increase within the short-term all sources of food and vegetables, in order to improve quality of consumption patterns and to decrease malnutrition. It is also planned to effectively change the structure of agriculture and the rural economy based on a stable food supply with emphasis on rice production (National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 1996). Some of the salient policies of this proclamation are given below.

· The State has declared a policy on marketing economics from the end of the 1980's, which enables food and agro-products to be freely circulated between regions in the whole country, and even in the international markets. Farmers and companies are free to choose markets and consumers to derive the best benefits. Such an approach has promoted agricultural development, including a boost for crop diversification, which has helped to provide many commodities to consumers.· The State promulgated the Law on agricultural tax with collection level ceiling at 7 percent of the output as against the previously levied 10 percent. Such tax benefits have encouraged agricultural land use efficiency and ensured equity between organizations, individuals and family householders who are offered land use rights when paying taxes to the government.
· Apart from the agricultural banking system, there are credit cooperatives and a credit fund for farmers. These institutions are promoting direct investment for various agricultural development enterprises. The State has formulated many programmes for financial support to the people in rural areas; special priorities were given to poor farmers and upland inhabitants at low interest. This policy has strongly promoted the development of the perennial industrial crop area and fruit tree culture, especially greening the barren land upstream of the Red River Basin and others.

7. CONCLUSIONS

· Crop diversification has been practiced in the country since 1989, when Viet Nam became a rice exporter. From 1990 to 1998, the growing area under rice increased by 20 percent; whereas the area under industrial crops increased by 83.4 percent; and annual industrial crops, fruit crops, vegetables and legumes recorded an increase of 50 percent.· There have been a lot of State interventions and policies which support crop diversification and agricultural development in general, such as policy on marketing, on agricultural tax and credit; as well as programmes on poverty alleviation, creating job opportunities, greening the barren land, establishing facilities for transportation of inputs, irrigation and other infrastructure. The State also helped to re-organize and increase investment for agricultural research institutes as well as improving systems of agricultural extension organizations.
· There have been a number of technologies transferred to farmers in order to increase both quantity and quality of crops and improve cropping patterns in the delta regions or in the highlands. The results of production strategies show that almost all crops have yielded better, especially rice. Crop commodities exported from Viet Nam included not only rice, but also other crops. For instance, Viet Nam has become a cashew nut exporter and is ranked third in world commerce; it has also been ranked fifth in world coffee exports, and gained recognition for the export of many other commodities such as tea, rubber, peanut, black pepper, fruits and vegetables.
· The biggest constraints limiting crop diversification in the country are high cost of inputs and low quality of produce because of the use of archaic technologies, often resulting in low benefits. It is necessary to invest in research for developing not only improved varieties, but also better agro-techniques that can enhance the potential of varieties. Much attention should be paid on techniques that do not require inputs of expensive chemicals. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt measures to reduce crop duration, such as growing very short duration rice varieties (80-90 days), and application of the seedling broadcasting method in the Delta regions which can reduce crop duration in rice fields by about 20-25 days.
· Cultivated and growing area under rice amounts to 4.2 and 7.6 million hectares, which occupies 54 percent and 68 percent of the national crop area, respectively. It is necessary to reduce the area under rice for crop diversification in order to enable farmers to get higher incomes and practice sustainable agriculture. Two main directions should be applied to enhance crop diversification: a) to increase the trade value of crop products by growing more profitable crops and adding value through processing; and b) to educate farmers of the 13 million households in Viet Nam in improving their dietary habits by consuming non-rice food crops rich in protein, oil, vitamins and minerals.

For further details log on website :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e0d.htm#CROP%20DIVERSIFICATION%20IN%20VIET%20NAM%20Nguyen%20Van%20Luat*