Ecosystem functions of oil palm plantations - a review

Author

Claudia Dislich, Alexander C. Keyel, Jan Salecker, Yael Kisel, Katrin M. Meyer, Marife D. Corre, Heiko Faust, Bastian Hess, Alexander Knohl, Holger Kreft, Ana Meijide, Fuad Nurdiansyah, Fenna Otten, Pe'er, Guy, Stefanie Steinebach, Suria Tarigan, Teja Tscharntke, Merja Tölle and Kerstin Wiegand

No 16, EFForTS Discussion Paper Series from University of Goettingen, Collaborative Research Centre 990 "EFForTS, Ecological and Socioeconomic Functions of Tropical Lowland Rainforest Transformation Systems (Sumatra, Indonesia)"

Abstract: Oil palm plantations have expanded rapidly in the last decades. This large-scale land-use change has had great impacts on both the areas converted to oil palm and their surroundings. Howev-er, research on the impacts of oil palm agriculture is scattered and patchy, and no clear overview ex-ists. Here, we address this gap through a systematic and comprehensive literature review of all ecosys-tem functions in oil palm plantations. We compare ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations to those in forests as forests are often cleared for the establishment of oil palm. We find that oil palm planta-tions generally have reduced ecosystem functioning compared to forests. Some of these functions are lost globally, such as those to gas and climate regulation and to habitat and nursery functions. The most serious impacts occur when land is cleared to establish new plantations, and immediately after-wards, especially on peat soils. To variable degrees, plantation management can prevent or reduce losses of some ecosystem functions. The only ecosystem function which increased in oil palm planta-tions is, unsurprisingly, the production of marketable goods. Our review highlights numerous research gaps. In particular, there are significant gaps with respect to information functions (socio-cultural functions). There is a need for empirical data on the importance of spatial and temporal scales, such as the differences between plantations in different environments, of different sizes, and of different ages. Finally, more research is needed on developing management practices that can off-set the losses of ecosystem functions.

Keywords: ecosystem functions; ecosystem services; biodiversity; oil palm; land-use change; Elaeis guineensis; review (search for similar items in EconPapers)
New Economics Papers: this item is included in nep-agr and nep-env
Date: 2015
References: View references in EconPapers View complete reference list from CitEc
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https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/117328/1/EFForTS_dp-16.pdf (application/pdf)

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Persistent link: http://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:zbw:crc990:16

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Black Seedless Grapes Nutrition

Author
by LISA THOMPSON 

Like green and red grapes, the majority of the calories in black grapes come from carbohydrates. You can eat black grapes raw or use them to make jams or wine. Values listed are for 1.5 cups California black seedless grapes. Values, especially the fiber content, may vary if the skin is removed.

Calories and Fiber

A 1.5 cup serving of black grapes contains 90 calories, nearly all of which come from carbohydrates. One serving of black grapes contains 24 grams of carbohydrates, which provides 8 percent of the daily value, based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Of the 24 grams of carbohydrates in one cup of black grapes, only 1 gram is fiber. An additional 23 grams of the carbohydrates in black grapes are sugar, primarily glucose and fructose.

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Fat and Protein

Black grapes contain only 1 gram of fat and no protein. To create a snack with more protein, eat grapes with either 1 cup of nonfat Greek yogurt, which contains about 20 grams of protein, no fat and 140 calories or 1 ounce of gouda cheese, which contains 7 grams of protein, 8 grams of fat and 100 calories.

Vitamins and Minerals

Black grapes contain numerous vitamins and minerals. Jus one serving of grapes provides 25 percent of the daily recommended amount of vitamin C, which promotes collagen production and assists in the formation of some brain chemicals. Your body does not produce vitamin C so you must get all you need through your diet. Black grapes also supply 2 percent of the daily recommended amounts of calcium, iron and vitamin A.

Antioxidants

Black grapes also contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which are pigments called carotenoids that occur naturally in many plants. Lutein and zeaxanthin are antioxidants that specifically protect the cells of the eye from oxidative damage. According to the American Optometric Association, lutein and zeaxanthin can help reduce your risk of cataracts and macular degeneration. Other foods high in lutein and zeaxanthin include leafy greens, corn and egg yolks.

For further information log on website ;
http://www.livestrong.com/article/370005-black-seedless-grapes-nutrition/

What Are the Benefits of Blueberries for the Skin?

Author
by ROB CALLAHAN

Blueberries are rich in fiber as well as vitamins A and C, while low in saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium. They are also a good source of antioxidants, and can be eaten raw, cooked with other foods, or dried for use in tea. No matter what form blueberries take in your diet, their many vitamins and nutrients can be good for your skin. Whether you suffer from acne, broken capillaries or splotchy skin, the nutrients in blueberries will help.

Blueberries and Acne

Vitamins in blueberries are often used to treat acne. Photo Credit Pixland/Pixland/Getty Images

Although acne is typically attributable more to hormones than to the physical condition of your skin, certain nutrients can counteract the hormonal conditions which encourage pimples. Many of the vitamins in blueberries may neutralize or normalize oil levels in your skin, making it healthier and less likely to accumulate sebum. Vitamin A, in particular, is used in a variety of acne-related skin treatments.

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Your Circulatory Health

Breaking of the capillaries under your skin can occur under a hard impact, which often leads to bruising, but it can also occur due to weakness within the vessel walls. When this occurs, skin may become splotchy, or tiny red lines may be visible under your skin. Sometimes called "spider veins," these broken capillaries can be unsightly and may take months or years to heal and disappear. The stronger your capillaries, the more resistance they are to breaking. The vitamin C in blueberries can help to strengthen the blood vessels just below the surface of your skin.

Antioxidants in Blueberries

Damage from antioxidants can cause your skin to age and lose elasticity.Photo Credit Digital Vision/Digital Vision/Getty Images

The antioxidants and phytochemicals found in blueberries help to neutralize free radicals, which might otherwise damage skin cells, leaving your skin with a younger and softer look and feel. A diet high in fat and carbohydrates can also encourage skin aging, so blueberries prevent aging by providing you with many needed nutrients while providing very low levels of fat and cholesterol.

The Indirect Benefits of Fiber

Fiber has no direct effect on your skin, but it does play a prominent role in the regulation of your digestive system and bowels. By ensuring proper digestion, it facilitates the timely removal of waste and toxins from your body. When your body is free of toxins, your overall health is better and your skin is one organ that is visibly more healthy. Fiber also absorbs some of the fat and cholesterol you get from food, leaving less to affect the health of your skin.

For further details log on website ;
http://www.livestrong.com/article/457861-what-are-the-benefits-of-blueberries-for-the-skin/

What Are the Health Benefits of Black Seedless Grapes?

Author
by JESSICA LEWIS 

Black grapes, velvety colored and deliciously sweet and juicy, can be consumed fresh and raw, dried as raisins or as a juice. Rich in nutrients, black seedless grapes are similar in taste and texture to red or green grapes, but because of their skin color, they have a higher antioxidant content. The U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends between 1 1/2 and 2 cups of fruit each day as part of a balanced diet, and eating black grapes will help you meet that goal.

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins found in black grapes can help control obesity. Photo Credit Purestock/Purestock/Getty Images

Anthocyanins are the flavonoid compound that gives black grapes their dark color; the darker the fruit, the higher the anthocyanin content. A natural antioxidant, anthocyanins protect your body from damage from free radicals, produced as your body breaks down food, reducing the risk of cell damage and death and potentially slowing down the aging process. A study published in the 2010 "Annual Review of Food Science and Technology" found that anthocyanins may help reduce inflammation and cancer activity, alleviate diabetes and control obesity.

Polyphenols

Polyphenols also are present in high concentrations in black grapes. Photo Credit Ingram Publishing/Ingram Publishing/Getty Images

Polyphenols also are present in high concentrations in black grapes. One of the most widely found and consumed natural antioxidants, they occur mainly in fruits and plant-based drinks, including juices and red wine made from black grapes. A 2005 publication of the American Society for Clinical Nutrition cites polyphenols as preventing cardiovascular diseases, cancers and osteoporosis. They may also help prevent neurodegenerative diseases and certain types of diabetes. Most of the studies were in vitro or animal experiments, however, so the research isn't conclusive.

Low Glycemic Index

Grapes won't cause dangerous blood sugar level spikes for diabetics. Photo Credit AndreyPopov/iStock/Getty Images

According to “A History of Food,” black grapes have a lower glycemic index than other grapes. While "Harvard Health Publications" cites the average GI for all grapes as 59, black grapes, according to “A History of Food,” have a GI of 43 to 53. The lower the GI is, the less effect the food has on your blood sugar and insulin levels. This means grapes won't cause your blood sugar levels to spike, which, in addition to being dangerous for diabetics, can lead to energy highs and crashes.

Resveratrol Content

All grapes contain resveratrol. Photo Credit Andy Dean/iStock/Getty Images

A phytonutrient, resveratrol is present in high concentrations in all grapes, including black grapes. A natural antioxidant, resveratrol may be useful in increasing lifespan and preventing the growth and development of cancer cells. But the majority of studies of the substance have been done on yeast, insects and animals, so the effect of resveratrol in humans isn't yet understood. Some scientists believe it may be the resveratrol content of red wine that makes the “French Paradox” possible -- low levels of cardiovascular disease among the French despite high levels of cigarette smoking and saturated fat in the typical French diet.

For further information log on website ;
http://www.livestrong.com/article/413667-what-are-the-health-benefits-of-black-seedless-grapes/

What Are the Benefits of Dried Blueberries?

Author
by MALA SRIVASTAVA

Dried blueberries pack a nutritional punch. They are low in sodium and in calories, offering 127 calories per one-quarter cup, and they contain no cholesterol. In addition, these fruits contain nutrients that are vital for your health. There are many ways for you to enjoy these sweet treats. You can make a smoothie by blending dried blueberries and a banana with a low-fat milk or add blueberries to hot oatmeal.

It Keeps Your Bones Strong and Healthy

Dried blueberries are rich in vitamin K, providing about 23.8 micrograms of the vitamin per one-quarter cup. This amount equates to 20 to 26 percent of the recommended daily value for vitamin K. Vitamin K helps your blood clot properly and plays a crucial role in your bone health. Furthermore, vitamin K helps your body use calcium to build bones. Evidence suggests that vitamin K helps cut the risk of bone fractures, especially in postmenopausal women who are at risk for osteoporosis, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center.

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It Combats Free Radicals

One-quarter cup of dried blueberries contains about 9.5 milligrams of vitamin C, meeting 11 to 13 percent of your daily needs. A water-soluble vitamin, vitamin C aids in bone growth and tissue repair. Your body needs vitamin C for healing wounds, as well as for repairing and maintaining your teeth and bones. Vitamin C also helps build collagen, which is a protein used to form ligaments, skin, blood vessels, tendons and cartilage. Collagen limits the damaging effects of free radicals through its antioxidant activity. Free radicals are unstable compounds that damage your DNA and may contribute to heart disease and cancer.

It May Help Prevent Type 2 Diabetes

Dried blueberries are a good source of fiber. One-quarter cup of dried blueberries provides you with 3 grams of fiber, fulfilling 10 to 12 percent of your daily fiber needs. Fiber helps keep your digestive system running smoothly and it also regulates bowel movements. Clinical studies suggest that consuming foods rich in fiber, such as dried blueberries, may help prevent type 2 diabetes, may lower blood sugar and insulin levels and may improve cholesterol levels in people with diabetes, according to the UMMC.

It Improves Your Cardiovascular Health

Dried blueberries are a rich source of anthocyanins, which are potent phytochemicals that give these fruits their blue color. Apart from this, anthocyanins help fight free radicals. Epidemiological and clinical studies have demonstrated an association between anthocyanins and improved cardiovascular health, according to a study published in the March 2010 issue of the journal "Nutrition Reviews." Also, human intervention studies using fresh or freeze-dried blueberries have shown notable improvements in metabolic risk factors such as glucose metabolism, lipid peroxidation, total plasma antioxidant capacity and low-density lipoprotein oxidation.

For further details log on website ;
http://www.livestrong.com/article/429510-what-are-the-benefits-of-dried-blueberries/

What Are the Health Benefits of Blueberry Smoothies?

Author
by JILL CORLEONE, RDN, LD 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's MyPlate guide to healthy eating recommends you include a serving of fruit at each meal. Smoothies can be an easy and tasty way for you to meet your mealtime fruit needs. It can also be healthy if you include the right ingredients. A healthy blueberry smoothie includes 1/2 cup of fresh or frozen blueberries, 1/2 cup of low-fat vanilla yogurt, 1/2 cup of 1 percent fat milk and ice. This smoothie is low in calories, high in calcium and a good source of antioxidants.

Low in Calories

As long as you use low-fat dairy products and the fruit as its own natural sweetener, a blueberry smoothie makes a low-calorie treat. The healthy blueberry smoothie recipe contains 114 calories. If you follow a 2,000-calorie diet, the smoothie meets less than 10 percent of your daily calorie needs, plus provides you with a healthy serving of fruit and milk.

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High in Calcium

Using milk and yogurt in the blueberry smoothie makes it a good source of calcium, with 207 milligrams. Adequate intakes of calcium are needed to help keep your bones healthy and strong. Most women do not get enough calcium in their diets, according to the Office of Dietary Supplements, increasing their risk of developing osteoporosis. Adults need 1,000 to 1,200 milligrams of calcium a day. One blueberry smoothie meets about 20 percent of your daily needs.

Rich in Antioxidants

Drinking a healthy blueberry smoothie may protect you against chronic diseases. Blueberries are rich in antioxidants. Antioxidants are substances in food that protect your cells against free radical damage. Free radicals are molecules produced from the breakdown of food and from contact with environmental toxins such as tobacco smoke. These molecules damage cells, increasing your risk of heart disease and cancer. The protective antioxidants in the smoothie include selenium, vitamin C, beta carotene, lutein and a small amount of vitamin E.

Good Source of Potassium

The blueberry smoothie is also a good source of potassium. Potassium is a mineral your body needs to help maintain fluid balance and normal muscle and nerve function. Including potassium-rich foods in your diet may also help lower blood pressure by decreasing the effects of sodium. The American Heart Association recommends 4,700 milligrams of potassium a day. A high-potassium diet is not for everyone. If you have a history of kidney disease or high blood levels of potassium, you should talk to your doctor before increasing your potassium intake.

For further information log on website ;
http://www.livestrong.com/article/548238-what-are-the-health-benefits-of-blueberry-smoothies/