14 epigenetic changes in equine spermatozoa during cryopreservation: a preliminary study

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14 epigenetic changes in equine spermatozoa during cryopreservation: a preliminary study

C. Aurich , B. Schreiner , N. Ille , M. Alvarenga , D. Scarlet

Reproduction, fertility, and development 2016 v.28 no.2 pp. 136-137

Abstract

The use of cryopreserved semen for insemination of mares facilitates breeding management but often results in reduced conception rates. This has been mainly attributed to changes in sperm membrane function caused by the freezing-thawing procedure. However, semen processing may also contribute to epigenetic changes in spermatozoa. In the present study, we therefore addressed changes in sperm DNA-methylation induced by cryopreservation of stallion semen. We hypothesised that the cryoprotectant may influence the DNA-methylation level of frozen-thawed semen. For this purpose, semen was collected from fertile Shetland pony stallions. Global DNA-methylation was assessed by ELISA (5-mC DNA ELISA Kit, Zymo Research, Irvine, CA, USA) with a monoclonal antibody sensitive and specific for 5-methylcytosin after DNA extraction and denaturation (100ng of DNA per sample). The level of 5-methylcytosin in DNA is reported as the amount of methylated cytosine relative to the cytosine genomic content (%). Statistical analysis was done with the SPSS Statistics 21 software. Values are means±standard error of the mean. In Experiment 1, 1.5mL of raw semen (n=6 stallions, 1 ejaculate each) was shock-frozen at –196°C for 15min and thawed at 38°C for 60s. Semen motility and membrane integrity were completely absent, while DNA-methylation was similar in raw (0.4±0.2%) and shock-frozen (0.3±0.1%) semen (not significant). In Experiment 2, 3 ejaculates per stallion (n=6) were included. Semen quality and DNA-methylation was assessed before addition of the freezing extender and after freezing-thawing with either Ghent (Minitube, Tiefenbach, Germany; cryoprotectant: 5% glycerol) or BotuCrio (Nidacon, Mölndal, Sweden; cryoprotectants: 1% glycerol and 4% methylformamid) extender. Semen was frozen in 0.5-mL straws in a computer-controlled rate freezer (IceCube 14 M; Sylab, Purkersdorf, Austria, cooling rates: 20°C to 5°C: 0.3°Cmin-1, 5°C to 25°C: 10°Cmin-1, –25°C to –140°C: 25°Cmin-1). Semen motility, morphology, and membrane integrity were significantly reduced (e.g. total motility before freezing: 88.8±1.4%) by cryopreservation but not influenced by the extender used (e.g. total motility: Ghent 69.5±2.0, BotuCrio 68.4±2.2%; P<0.001 v. nonfrozen semen). Cryopreservation significantly (P<0.01) increased the level of DNA-methylation (before freezing: 0.6±0.1%, Ghent 6.4±3.7, BotuCrio 4.4±1.5%; P<0.01), but no differences between the freezing extenders were seen. The level of DNA-methylation was not correlated with semen motility, morphology, or membrane integrity. The results demonstrate that semen processing for cryopreservation increases the DNA-methylation level in stallion semen. In the present study, this effect occurred irrespective of the cryoprotectant but was not seen after shock-freezing in the absence of cryoprotectants. The reduced fertility of mares after insemination with frozen-thawed semen may at least in part be explained by methylation of sperm DNA, which occurs in response to the cryopreservation procedure.

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Physical and mechanical properties of thermoplastic starch/montmorillonite nanocomposite films

Physical and mechanical properties of thermoplastic starch/montmorillonite nanocomposite films

Cyras, V.P. , Manfredi, L.B. , Ton-That, M.T. , Vázquez, A.

Carbohydrate polymers 2008 v.73 no.1 pp. 55-63

Abstract

Glycerol-plasticized starch/clay nanocomposites films were prepared from potato starch and three different loadings of montmorillonite aqueous suspensions by casting, to study the effect of the nanoclay in the properties of starch. The clay dispersion in the films was analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). It was observed that the 001 diffraction peak of clay was shift to lower angles in the nanocomposites patterns providing strong evidence that the clay nanolayers formed an intercalated structure but not complete exfoliation. An improvement in the thermal resistance of starch with the addition of clay was also observed by means of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The water absorbed by the nanocomposites measured in an environment with a 75% of constant relative humidity was reduced by the addition of montmorillonite to the starch. The micro-tensile test was performed on the nanocomposite films showing significant improvement in the Young modulus up to 500% for the nanocomposite containing 5 wt% of clay.

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Effect of high temperature processing under different environments on physical and surface properties of rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis)

Title

Effect of high temperature processing under different environments on physical and surface properties of rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis)

Journal

Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science
Volume 11, Issue 2 , pp 182-189

Cover Date

2014-12

DOI

10.1007/s13196-014-0135-x

Print ISSN

0972-172X

Online ISSN

0976-8432

Publisher

Springer India

Additional Links

• Register for Journal Updates
• Editorial Board
• About This Journal
• Manuscript Submission
• 
  

Author Affiliations

• 1. Wood Properties and Uses Division, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Malleshwram P.O., Bangalore, 560 003, India

• S. R. Shukla 
• , S. K. Sharma

Abstract

Plantation grown Hevea brasiliensis (rubberwood) was thermally processed in a vacuum-pressure oven in the temperature range of 150–240 °C under two inert environments (vacuum and nitrogen gas) and normal atmospheric pressure (air). Effect of heat treatments on various physical properties of rubberwood such as equilibrium moisture content (EMC), specific gravity, water uptake, shrinkage, colour and surface roughness profiles was evaluated and compared with untreated wood. The EMC of rubberwood was found to be reduced by almost half while specific gravity was reduced slightly after heat treatment. The intensity of darker brown colour was increased with increasing heat treatment temperatures and colour change was observed to be uniform throughout the wood blocks. Dimensional stability, water resistance, colour and surface quality were observed to be improved after thermal processing of rubberwood at moderately high temperatures under inert environments without affecting other properties deleteriously. Based on improved properties, heat treated rubberwood was found to be suitable for nonstructural applications such as flooring, siding, paneling etc.

Keywords

Heat treatment Plantation species Shrinkage Roughness Dimensional stability

References 

1. Anon (1986) IS:1708. Indian standard for ‘Methods of testing small clear specimens’. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
2. Anon (1989) IS:3670. Indian standard for ‘Construction of timber floors-code of practice.’ (First Revision). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
3. Anon (2003) ThermoWood Handbook, Finnish Thermowood Association, Wood Focus Oy, Helsinki
4. Anon (2012) Mitutoyo surface roughness tester-Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-401. Mitutoyo Corporation, Kawasaki
5. Ayrilmis N, Jarusombuti S, Fueangvivat V, Bauchongkol P (2011) Effects of thermal treatment of rubberwood fibres on physical and mechanical properties of medium density fibreboard. J Trop For Sci 23(1):10–16
6. Boonstra MJ, Van Acker J, Pizzi A (2007) Anatomical and molecular reasons for property changes of wood after full-scale industrial heat-treatment. In: Proceedings third European conference on wood modification, Cardiff, 15–16th Oct 2007, pp 343–358
7. Bourgois J, Janin J, Guyonnet R (1991) The color measurement: A test method to study and to optimize the chemical transformations undergone in the thermally treated wood. Holzforschung 45(5):377–382CrossRef
8. Dwianto W, Inoue M, Tanaka F, Norimoto M (1996) The permanent fixation of compressive deformation in wood by heat treatment. In: Proceedings from the third pacific rim bio-based composites symposium, Kyoto, pp 231–239
9. Emmler R, Scheiding W (2007) Darker shades of wood: thermally modified timber (TMT) as a new material for parquet floorings. Eur Coat J 4:106–111
10. González-Peña MM (2012) Improvement of the biological performance and dimensional stability of two tropical woods. Paper presented in 43rd IRG Annual Meeting, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 6–10 May, IRG/WP 12-40605. The International Research Group on Wood Protection, Stockholm
11. Gunduz G, Korkut S, Korkut DS (2008) The effects of heat treatment on physical and technological properties and surface roughness of Camiyanı Black Pine (Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana var. pallasiana) wood. BioRes Technol 99:2275–2280CrossRef
12. Hill CAS (2006) Wood modification—chemical, thermal and other processes. Wiley, Chichester 239CrossRef
13. Hillis WE (1984) High temperature and chemical effects on wood stability. I. General considerations. Wood Sci Technol 18(4):281–293CrossRef
14. Hofmann T, Retfalvi T, Albert L, Niemz P (2008) Investigation of the chemical changes in the structure of wood thermally modified within a nitrogen atmosphere autoclave. Wood Res 53(3):1–14
15. Hsu WE, Schwald W, Schwald J, Shields JA (1988) Chemical and physical changes required for producing dimensionally stable wood-based composites. Part I: steam pretreatment. Wood Sci Technol 22:281–289CrossRef
16. Kamdem DP, Pizzi A, Jermanaud A (2002) Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkstoff 60(1):1–6CrossRef
17. Korkut S, Akgul M (2007) Effect of drying temperature on surface roughness of oak (Quercus petraea Steven ex Bieb Krassiln) veneer. Build Environ 42(5):1931–1935CrossRef
18. Metsa-Kortelainen S, Antikainen T, Viitaniemi P (2006) The water absorption of sapwood and heartwood of Scots pine and Norway spruce heat-treated at 170 °C, 190 °C, 210 °C and 230 °C. Holz Roh- Werkstoff 64:192–197CrossRef
19. Niemz P, Bekhta P (2003) Effect of high temperature on the changes in color, dimensional stability and mechanical properties of spruce wood. Holzforschung 57(5):539–546
20. Niemz P, Hofmann T, Retfalvi T (2010) Investigation of chemical changes in the structure of thermally modified wood. Maderas-Ciencia Y Tecnologia 12(2):69–78
21. Obataya E, Tomita B (2002) Hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood. II Reversible and irreversible reductions in the hygroscopicity of wood due to heating. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 48(4):288–295
22. Obataya E, Tanaka F, Norimoto M, Tomita B (2000) Hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood I: effects of after-treatments on the hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 46(2):77–87
23. Rep G, Pohleven F (2001) Wood modification–a promising method for wood preservation. Drvna industrija 52(2):71–76
24. Repellin V, Guyonnet R (2005) Evaluation of heat-treated wood swelling by differential scanning calorimetry in relation to chemical composition. Holzforschung 59:28–34CrossRef
25. Sailer M, Rapp AO, Leithoff H, Peek RD (2000) Upgrading of wood by application of an oil heat treatment. Holz als Roh Werkstoff 58(1/2):15–22CrossRef
26. Sundquist B (2004) Colour changes and acid formation in wood during heating. Doctoral thesis. Divisions of Wood Material Science. Lulea University of Technology, Skellefta
27. Zivkovic V, Prsa I, Turkulin H, Sinkovic T, Jirous-Rajkovic V (2008) Dimensional stability of heat treated wood floorings. Drvna Industrija 59(2):69–73

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Ring width variations of Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) at breast height

Title

Ring width variations of Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) at breast height

Journal

Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science
Volume 11, Issue 1 , pp 87-92

Cover Date

2014-06

DOI

10.1007/s13196-014-0123-1

Print ISSN

0972-172X

Online ISSN

0976-8432

Publisher

Springer India

Additional Links

• Register for Journal Updates
• Editorial Board
• About This Journal
• Manuscript Submission

• B. R. Gogoi
• , M. Sharma 
• , C. L. Sharma

Abstract

The present study was conducted on five randomly selected trees of Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya) collected from Jaintia Hills District of Meghalaya, India. The aim of the study was to evolve an sampling procedure for ring width comparison among trees. ANOVA carried out among eight cardinal directions showed statistically non-significant variation around the circumference which suggested that any random radial direction can be taken for ring width comparison amongst Khasi pine trees. There was irregular decrease in ring width from pith to bark. A statistically significant and negative correlation existed between ring width and age. The logarithmic regression model for ring width was obtained as Y = 6.33 + (−1.09) ln X). On the basis of this model, the boundary between juvenile wood and mature wood can be marked at ring number 10 from pith and hence rings 1–10 can be regarded as juvenile wood and rings 11 to bark as mature wood.

Keywords

Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya) Ring width Radial variation Circumference Juvenile wood

References 

1. Adamopolous S, Voulgaridis E (2002) Within tree variation in growth rate and cell dimensions in the wood of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). IAWA J 23(2):191–199CrossRef
2. Alteyrac J, Cloutier A, Ung CH, Zhang SY (2006) Mechanical properties in relation to selected wood characteristics of black spruce. Wood Fib Sci 38:229–237
3. Bala M (1991) Ring width variation at breast-height in Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. J Indian Acad Wood Sci 22(1):45–51
4. Bannan MW, Bindra M (1970) The influence of wind on ring width and cell length in conifer stems. Can J Bot 48(2):255–259CrossRef
5. Downes GM, Wimmer R, Evans R (2002) Understanding wood formation. Gains to commercial forestry through tree ring research. Dendrochronologia 201(2):37–51CrossRef
6. Gindl W, Grabner M, Wimmer R (2000) The influence of temperature on latewood lignin content in treeline Norway spruce compared with maximum density and ring width. Trees 14(7):409–414CrossRef
7. Kiael M, Khademi-Eslam H, Hemmasi AH, Samariha A (2012) Ring width, physical and mechanical properties of Eldar pine (case study on Marzanabad site). Cellul Chem Technol 46(1–2):125–135
8. Knapic S, Pereira H (2005) Within-tree variation of heartwood and ring width in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.). For Eco Manag 210:81–89CrossRef
9. Koubbaa A, Isbael N, Zheng SY, Bealieu J, Bosquet J (2005) Transition from juvenile to mature wood of Japanese larch. J wood Sci 46:445–455
10. Lei AS (1999) Tree size and ring width of three conifers in Southern Nevada. USDA For Serv Proc RMRS P9:94–98
11. Seth MK, Agrawal HO (1983) Ring width sampling at breast height in blue pine (Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson). J Tree Sci 2(1–2):24–31
12. Seth MK, Thakur M, Kapoor I (2005) Circumferential and radial variation in ring width in West Himalayan Fir (Abies pindrow Royle). Indian For 131(8):1091–1100
13. Sharma CL, Sharma M, Jamir L (2014) Radial variation in wood properties of plantation grown Terminalia myriocarpa Heurck and Muell. Arg. in Nagaland, India. Res J Rec Sci 3:9–14
14. Wimmer R, Grabner M (2000) A comparison of tree ring features in Picea abies as correlated with climate. IAWA J 21(4):403–416CrossRef
15. Zhu J, Nakano T, Hirakawa Y (1998) Effect of growth on wood properties for Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi): differences of annual ring structure between corewood and outerwood. J Wood Sci 44:392–396CrossRef
16. Zhu J, Nakano T, Hirakawa Y (2000) Effect of radial growth rate on selected indices for juvenile and mature wood of Japanese larch. J Wood Sci 46:417–422CrossRef
17. Zobel BJ, van Buijtenen JP (1989) Wood variation, its causes and control. Springer, BerlinCrossRef

Author Affiliations

• 1. Department of Forestry, Wood Science and Forest Products Laboratory, NERIST, Papum Pare, Arunachal Pradesh, India

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The effect of nano-zinc oxide on particleboard decay resistance

The effect of nano-zinc oxide on particleboard decay resistance

Pouya Marzbani^1,♠, Younes Mohammadnia Afrouzi², Asghar Omidvar²

¹Department of Pulp and Paper Technology, Faculty of Wood and Paper Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Golestan province, Iran. 

²Department of Wood Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Wood and Paper Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Golestan province, Iran.

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to investigate the decay resistance of particleboards treated with nano- zinc oxide against the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor and the brown-rot species Coniophora puteana. The nanomaterial was used for manufacturing particleboards at 5, 10 and 15% wt based on the glue dry weight. The soil block decay test was performed according to ASTM D 1413 (2007) using a 12 weeks incubation period. The results showed that all treated boards had good resistance against the decay fungi and the weight loss decreased in the samples with increasing nanomaterial loading. The threshold level of treated boards against fungal decay was obtained about 21% and 17% nano-ZnO against C. puteana and T. versicolor, respectively. Therefore, it had a positive effect on increasing particleboard resistance against the fungi. The maximum decay resistance (or minimum weight loss) occurred in the samples containing 15% zinc oxide nanoparticles.

Keywords: Particleboard, nano-zinc oxide, decay resistance, weight loss.  

INTRODUCTION

Wood is naturally made and consists of carbon hydrates and lignin in its structure. It can be destroyed by different factors such as UV rays, fungi, beetles, ants, marine borers and chemicals (Schmidt 2006). This fact decreases its durability in the wooden structures. Several processes have been suggested to increase the wood durability such as chemical preservation procedures. In recent years, the use of fungicides and insecticides has been met some limitations due to the environmental problems and therefore, the researchers are looking for alternative safe chemicals to increase the wood durability along with minimum damage to the environment (Dorau et al. 2004, Rezaei and Parsapajouh 2004).

Recently, the effects of nanomaterial utilization on improvement of the wood resistance against different wood destructive factors have been investigated in several studies (Clausen 2007, Freeman and McIntyre 2008, Kartal et al. 2009, Yu et al. 2010, Clausen et al. 2010, Clausen et al. 2011, Saha et al. 2011, Sahin and Mantanis 2011, Afrouzi et al. 2013). Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is less than approximately 100 nanometers (Siegel et al. 1999, Baer et al. 2003, Kafarski 2007). The two main reasons why materials at the nanoscale can have different properties are increased relative surface area and new quantum effects. Nanomaterials have a much greater surface area to volume ratio than their conventional forms, which can lead to greater chemical reactivity and affect their strength. Also at the nanoscale, quantum effects can become much more important in determining the materials properties and characteristics, leading to novel optical, electrical and magnetic behaviors (Alagarasi 2011).

Nano-zinc oxide (nano-ZnO) is a white powder that is insoluble in water, but soluble in weak and strong mineral acids, ammonia, acetic acid or formic acid. It is used in many industries due to its low cost and catalytic, electrical, electronic, optical and antimicrobial properties (Sato et al. 2003, Yang et al. 2004). It is used to produce sunscreens, cosmetics, coatings, optical and electronic devices (Yang et al. 2004, Dange et al. 2007). Zinc oxide is used as preservative, but when its particle size is reduced to the nanoscale, its reactivity extremely increases (Mende and MacManus-Driscoll 2007).

Clausen et al. (2009) used vacuum treated southern yellow pine and yellow poplar with 2,5 and 5% nano-ZnO to evaluate leaching, mold and decay inhibition, termite resistance, and visible signs of weathering. They observed that virtually no leaching occurred at any treatment concentration of nano-ZnO and all concentrations of the nanomaterial showed inhibition of termite feeding. Decay inhibition was variable. Nano-ZnO did not inhibit the brown rot fungi as well as soluble ZnSO₄ and the weight loss due to the white-rot fungi was inhibited by all tested nano-ZnO concentrations.

In another research carried out by Kartal et al. (2009), the leachability and efficacy of southern yellow pine treated with copper, zinc, or boron nanoparticles was evaluated against mould fungi, decay fungi, and Eastern subterranean termites. The results showed that nano-copper with or without surfactant, nano-zinc, and nano-zinc plus silver with surfactant resisted leaching compared to metal oxide controls. In addition, the nano-copper treated samples that were exposed to Antrodia sp., resulted in high weight loss (19 to 33 percent) and the unleached samples containing nano-boron and boric acid effectively inhibited all decay fungi. Nano-zinc possessed the most favorable properties such as leaching resistance, termite mortality, and inhibition of termite feeding and decay by white-rot fungi.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of particleboards containing zinc oxide nanoparticles against the decay fungi. This is the first study to examine the resistance of particleboard containing nanomaterial against fungal decay.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) sapwood obtained from the research forest in Shastkalateh, Golestan province, Iran, was chipped and air dried to 3% moisture content. Urea- formaldehyde glue was used at 12% wt (based on the wood dry weight). Nano-zinc oxide (Nano Pars Lima Co.) was added at 5, 10 and 15% wt (based on the glue dry weight) into the glue, mixed by ultrasonic devise UP400S and sprayed on the particles. The mat moisture content was 11%. It was pressed at 175°C and a constant pressure of 30 kg/cm² for 6 minutes to manufacture the panels with a density of 0,75 g/cm³. Boards without nano-ZnO were prepared as control samples. The prepared boards had a thickness of 19 mm and were cut into 19 mm cubes and tested according to ASTM D 1413 (2007) with 6 replications for each treatment-fungus combination. Water holding capacity of the soil was 130%. The white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd strain (CTB 863 A) and the brown-rot fungus Coniophora puteana (Schumacher ex fries) Karesten (BAM Ebw. 15) were used to inoculate samples. The classification of resistance was done according to ASTM D2017 (2005) method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of Tukey statistical analysis test showed that there was a significant difference between WL of treated and untreated samples. Weight Loss (%) was significantly more in the untreated samples and decreased with increasing nanomaterial loading in both fungi tested as shown in Table 1. Variance analysis of the factors affecting WL specified that the independent effect of fungus type and nano-ZnO loading on WL was significant in the 95% significance level.

The sample resistance against the white-rot fungus significantly increased with increment of nano-ZnO loading and the minimum WL occurred in the samples containing 15% nano-ZnO that was approximately 15 times lower than the untreated sample WL. Improving decay resistance may be due to the antifungal properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles (Kartal et al. 2009).

Table 1. Weight loss due to Trametes versicolor and Coniophora puteana attacks and classification of resistance.

The untreated sample WL due to Trametes versicolor was more than Coniophora puteana. C. puteana as a brown-rot fungus primarily attacks the cellulose and hemicellulose and prefers softwoods while T. versicolor, as a simultaneous white-rot fungus, attacks both lignin and carbohydrates and favors hardwoods (Coggins 1980, Harsh and Tiwari 1990, Highley 1991, Curling and Murphy 2002, Schmidt 2006). It may justify more destruction and WL of the untreated samples prepared from poplar sapwood by T. versicolor. Higher degradation rate of mannans than cellulose and xylanes may lead to low destruction of hardwoods by C. puteana (Ritschkoff et al. 1992, Schmidt 2006).

A significant reduction occurred in the treated sample WL that was exposed to the brown- rot fungus and there was an inverse relation between WL and nano-ZnO loading. In addition, the treated sample WL due to the brown-rot fungus was more than the samples WL that were exposed to white-rot fungus, although the white-rot fungus can destroy other wood components in addition to lignin (Highley 1991). WL in the samples containing 15% nano-ZnO was 3,03 and 7,23% due to the white and brown rot fungi, respectively.

Figure 1. Changes trend of WL and nano-ZnO loading that determines the threshold level of treated boards against Trametes versicolor and Coniophora puteana.

Figure 1 shows the relation between nano-ZnO loading and the board WL for C. puteana and T. versicolor, whereby the threshold level of treated boards obtained about 21% and 17% nano-ZnO against C. puteana and T. versicolor, respectively. It means that C. puteana had more resistance against nano-ZnO and it slightly could preserve its destructive activity that resulted in more WL in spite of the antifungal effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Therefore, more nanoparticle loading is needed to achieve 0% WL in the samples that were exposed to the brown rot fungus. The antifungal properties of nano-ZnO is related to its interference in the cell wall structure and metabolism process and consequently cell death (Lia et al. 2009).

Conclusion 

Nano-zinc oxide clearly was effective in the sample weight loss (WL) after exposing to wood destructive fungi. Sample WL decreased with increasing nanomaterial loading. The minimum WL occurred in the boards containing 15% nano-ZnO yielding high decay resistance. Nano-ZnO had good effects on preventing fungal decay and WL due to the white-rot fungus. Therefore, it can be used as a suitable preservative and filler in the wood composites. However, although the exploration of zinc oxide nanoparticles based products is booming in the various directions of consumer products, their comprehensive toxicological impact still remains unclear and should be considered when used for wood.

References 

Afrouzi, Y.M.; Omidvar, A; Marzbani, P. 2013. Effect of Artificial Weathering on the Wood Impregnated with Nano-Zinc Oxide. World Applied Sciences Journal 22 (9): 1200-1203.       [ Links ]

Alagarasi, A. 2011. Introduction to nanomaterials. National Centre for Catalysis Research (NCCR) internal bulletin (Unpublished). Chennai, India. [Online]:<http://www.nccr.iitm.ac.in/2011.pdf> [Links ]

American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM. 2007. Standard Test Method for Wood Preservatives by Laboratory Soil-Block Cultures. ASTM D 1413. In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards (Vol. 04.10), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.         [ Links ]

American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM. 2005. Standard Test Method for accelerated laboratory test of natural decay resistance for woods. ASTM D 2017. In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards (Vol. 04.10), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.         [ Links ]

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Clausen, C.A. 2007. Nanotechnology: Implications for the wood preservation Industry. International Research Group on Wood Protection, Stockholm, Sweden, Doc. No. IRG/WP 07- 30415, p. 10.  [ Links ]

Clausen, C.A.; Yang, V.W.; Arango, R.A.; Green III, F. 2009. Feasibility of nano-zinc oxide as a wood preservative. Proceedings of American Wood Protection Association, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 105: 255-260.         [ Links ]

Clausen, C.A.; Green III, F.; Kartal, S.N. 2010. Weatherability and Leach Resistance of Wood Impregnated with Nano-Zinc Oxide. Nanoscale Research Letters 5(9): 1464–1467.         [ Links ]

Clausen, C.A.; Kartal, S.N.; Arango, R.A.; Green III, F. 2011. The role of particle size of particulate nano-zinc oxide wood preservatives on termite mortality and leach resistance. Nanoscale Research Letters 6(1): 465-470.         [ Links ]

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