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Monday, 14 March 2016

SLAUGHTER TAPPING

Slaughter tapping is an obsolete method of extracting large quantities of natural latex from rubber trees in a forest environment. Prior to commercial exploitation of latex-bearing trees such as Hevea brasiliensis in the Amazon Basin and Funtumia elastica in the Congo, native populations limited harvesting to non-lethal tapping of the latex. However, with the rising demand for rubber worldwide in the late nineteenth century, debt-slave "hunters" began tapping more intensively, using ladders to extract as much latex as possible from all areas of the tree, killing the tree as a result. This "slaughter tapping" resulted in the destruction of all latex-bearing trees across large swathes of sub-Saharan Africa and South America. Eventually, the establishment of rubber plantations in the Far East Made "hunting" of naturally occurring rubber trees unprofitable, and the practice largely ceased in the early twentieth century.

References

  • Hobhouse, Henry (2003, 2005). Seeds of Wealth: Five Plants That Made Men Rich. Shoemaker & Hoard. pp. 141–142. ISBN 1-59376-089-2.

- Wikipedia 

SMART RUBBER

Smart rubber is a polymeric material that is able to "heal" when torn. Near room temperature this process is reversible and can be cycled several times. Supramolecular self-healing rubber can be processed, re-used, and ultimately recycled. The edges of a tear can be held together, and they will simply re-bond into apparent solidity. This is done by utilizing a hydrogen-bonding polymer, rather than producing a material whose structure would depend on covalent bonding and ionic bonding between chains, which is typical of normal rubber. In this case hydrogen bonding can occur simply by pressing two faces of the substance together, allowing the recovery of a continuous hydrogen bonding network.

Hydrogen Bonding Network

Smart rubber will recover its original mechanical strength within several hours of being split and them subsequently recombined. Residual hydrogen bond donors and acceptors responsible for the self-healing properties of the elastomer remain unpaired until the newly exposed surface comes in contact with another complimentary surface, allowing formation of new intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Comparisons with Conventional Rubber

When compared to rubber, which is covalently cross-linked, smart rubber cannot continually hold mechanical stress without undergoing gradual plastic deformation, and strain recovery is typically slow.

References

  • "Smart rubber promises self-mending products. newscientist.com. Retrieved July 15,2012.
  • Montarnal, Damien; Cordier, Philippe; Soulié-Ziakovic, Corinne; Tournilhac, François; Leibler, Ludwik (15 December 2008). "Synthesis of self-healing supramolecular rubbers from fatty acid derivatives, diethylene triamine, and urea". Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry 46 (24): 7925–7936. doi:10.1002/pola.23094.
  • Montarnal, Damien; Tournilhac, François; Hidalgo, Manuel; Couturier, Jean-Luc; Leibler, Ludwik (17 June 2009). "Versatile One-Pot Synthesis of Supramolecular Plastics and Self-Healing Rubbers". Journal of the American Chemical Society 131 (23): 7966–7967. doi:10.1021/ja903080c.
  • Wietor, Jean-Luc; Sijbesma, Rint P. (13 October 2008). "A Self-Healing Elastomer". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 47 (43): 8161–8163. doi:10.1002/anie.200803072.

- Wikipedia 

ORCHARD

An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit vegetable and nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose. A fruit garden is generally synonymous with an orchard, although it is set on a smaller non-commercial scale and may emphasize berry shrubs in preference to fruit trees. Most temperate-zone orchards are laid out in a regular grid, with a grazed or mown grass or bare soil base that makes maintenance and fruit gathering easy.
A lemon orchard in the UpperGalilee In Israel.
Orchards are often concentrated near bodies of water, where climatic extremes are moderated and blossom time is retarded until frost danger is past.
A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920s, in Westcliff on Sea (Essex, England)

Layout
An orchard's layout is the technique of planting the crops in a proper system. There are different methods of planting and thus different layouts. Some of these layout types include:
  1. Square method
  2. Rectangular method
  3. Quincunx method
  4. Triangular method
  5. Hexagonal method
  6. Contour (or Terracing) method
For different varieties, these systems may vary by some extent.
Streuobstwiese, a rural community orchard, traditionally for productive use. Today endorsed for its quality of habitat and biodiversity

Orchards by Region
The most extensive orchards in the United States are apple and orange orchards, although citrus orchards are more commonly called groves. The most extensive apple orchard area is in eastern Washington state, with a lesser but significant apple orchard area in most of Upstate New York. Extensive orange orchards are found in Florida and southern California, where they are more widely known as 'groves'. In eastern North America,  many orchards are along the shores of Lake Michigan (such as the Fruit Ridge Region), Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.
Apple orchards in Azwell, Washington Surrounding a community of pickers'cabins
In Canada, apple and other fruit orchards are widespread on the Niagara Peninsula, south of Lake Ontario. This region is known as Canada Fruitbelt and, in addition to large-scale commercial fruit marketing, it encourages "pick-your-own" activities in the harvest season.
Murcia is a major orchard area (or la huerta) in Europe, with citrus crops. New Zealand, China, Argentina and Chile also have extensive apple orchards.
Tenbury Wells in Worcestershire has been called The Town in the Orchard, since the 19th century, because it was surrounded by extensive orchards. Today, this heritage is celebrated through an annual Applefest.
Sour cherry orchard on Lake Erie-shoreline (Leamington, Ontario).

Central Europe

Streuobstwiese (pl. Streuobstwiesen) is a German word that means a meadow with scattered fruit trees or fruit trees that are planted in a field. Streuobstwiese, or a meadow orchard, is a traditional landscape in the temperate, maritime climate of continental Western Europe. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Streuobstwiesen were a kind of a rural community orchard that were intended for productive cultivation of stone fruit. In recent years, ecologists have successfully lobbied for state subsidies to valuable habitats, biodiversity and natural landscapes, which are also used to preserve old meadow orchards. Both conventional and meadow orchards provide a suitable habitat for many animal species that live in a cultured landscape. A notable example is the hoopoe that nests in tree hollows of old fruit trees and, in the absence of alternative nesting sites, is threatened in many parts of Europe, because of the destruction of old orchards.

Historical Orchards

  • Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts was the residence of American celebrated writer Louisa May Alcott.
  • Fruita, Utah part of Capitol Reef National Park has Mormon pioneer orchards maintained by the United States National Park Service.

Old growth apple orchard in Ottawa, Canada

Orchards Conservative in the UK

  • Natural England, through its Countryside Stewardship Scheme, Environmental Stewardship and Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme, gives grant aid and advice for the maintenance, enhancement or re-creation of historical orchards.
  • The 'Orchard Link' organisation provides advice on how to manage and restore the county of Devon's orchards, as well as enabling the local community to use the local orchard produce. An organisation called 'Orchards Live' carries out similar work in North Devon.
  • People's Trust for Endangered Species (PTES) has mapped every traditional orchard within England and Wales and manages the national inventory for this habitat.
  • The UK Biodiversity Partnership lists traditional orchards and a priority UK Biodiversity Action Plan habitat.
  • The Wiltshire Traditional Orchards Project maps, conserves and restores traditional orchards within Wiltshire, England.

References

  1. ^ Luther Burbank. Practical Orchard Plans and Methods: How to Begin and Carry on the Work. The Minerva Group. ISBN 1-4147-0141-1.
  2. ^ "The Teme Valley Times supports the Tenbury Applefest", applefest.org.uk.
  3. ^ "dict.cc dictionary :: Streuobstwiese :: German-English translation", dict.cc.
  4. ^ Streuobstwiese: meadow orchard in German-English Collins Dictionary.
  5. ^ Berhens M. Why hoopoes won't trade, A Pro Natura Publication on the Global Economy and Nature. Pro Natura, Switzerland, pp. 8-9. Archived, January 16, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  6. ^ Entry Level Stewardship Handbook. Natural England. 2008. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-84754-080-5.
  7. ^ "Orchards Live - About Us", orchardslive.org.uk.
  8. ^ PTES Traditional Orchard Survey
  9. ^ UK BAP

External Links


- Wikipedia 

CROP

crop is any cultivated, plant, fungus, or alga that is harvested for food, clothing, livestock fodder, biofuel, medicine or other uses. In contrast, animals that are raised by humans are called livestock, except those that are kept as pets. Microbes, such as bacteria or viruses, are referred to as cultures. Microbes are not typically grown for food, but are rather used to alter food. For example, bacteria are used to ferment milk to produce yogurt.
Domesticated plants
Major crops include sugarcane, pumpkin, maize (corn), wheat, rice, cassava, soybeans, hay, potatoes and cotton.
Based on the growing season, the crops grown in India can be classified as kharif crops and rabi crops.
Crops drying in a home in Punjab, India.
References

  1. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (2009). "Maize, rice and wheat : area harvested, production quantity, yield".
Further Reading

  • Sleper, David A.; Poehlman, John M. (2006). Breeding Field Crops, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9780813824284 Retrieved December 5, 2011.

- Wikipedia 

Omega-3 Fish Oil & Stomach Cramps

Omega-3 fatty acids promote good heart and brain health but your body doesn’t produce them; you can only get them from the food you eat — mainly fish. They are polyunsaturated fats which are necessary for normal brain function and normal development and growth. You can also get omega-3 fatty acids from supplements. Fish oil is known to have many health benefits, such as reducing inflammation, improving cognitive skills, and lowering your risk of cancer, arthritis and heart disease. However, using supplements in general should never be done without medical supervision.
Omega-3 Fish Oil & Stomach Cramps
A plate of rolled up smoke salmon slices. Photo Credit rez-art/iStock/Getty Images

Heart Health

Fish oil is widely known for its heart-healthy benefits. The National Institutes of Health’s Medline Plus states that fish oil can lower blood pressure and triglyceride levels, reducing your risk for cardiovascular disease and stroke. Fish oil may also slow or reverse the progression of athersclerosis, or hardening of the coronary arteries.

Sources

Fish is your best source of omega-3 fatty acids. Salmon, mackerel, tuna, sardines, trout, herring, bluefish, and mullet are highly rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, with 1 gram per 3.5 ounces of fish, according to Medline Plus. Fish oil supplements contain oil from tuna, halibut, cod liver, mackerel, herring, salmon, whale blubber or seal blubber, combined with a small amount of vitamin E to prevent spoilage. The supplements may also contain calcium, vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, C or D, and iron.

Recommended Intake

A healthy diet that includes at least two servings of fish twice a week provides all the omega-3 fatty acids you need. The University of Maryland Medical Center recommends no more than 3 g per day for healthy adults taking supplements. Make sure your supplements are from a vendor who can certify their capsules do not contain heavy metals like lead, mercury or cadmium. Children should not take fish oil unless under medical supervision.

Side Effects

Fish oil does have potential side effects. The Mayo Clinic recommends taking supplements with meals and/or starting with a low dosage to minimize uncomfortable symptoms such as severe diarrhea, bloating, increased burping/belching, indigestion/heartburn/acid reflux, and abdominal pain. Other side effects include bad breath, nausea, rash and nosebleeds.

Caution

Certain individuals may take higher dosages of fish oil under a doctor‘s supervision, such as persons with high cholesterol or heart disease. Others should not exceed recommended dosages. High doses of fish oil can increase your risk for bleeding and blood clotting problems, so proceed with caution if you bruise easily, have a bleeding disorder or take blood-thinners such as warfarin. Too much fish oil may also lower your immunity; raise your LDL or bad cholesterol; elevate blood sugar; cause an allergic reaction if you’re allergic to seafood; and cause dangerously low blood pressure. Consult your doctor before taking fish oil supplements if you are taking blood pressure, cholesterol-lowering or diabetic medications.
www.livestrong.com

Can Fish Oil Cause Gas and Frequent Bowel Movements?

Fish oil has anti-inflammatory properties and a high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids. The nutrients in fish oil also aid brain function and reduce the risk of developing heart disease, arthritis and cancer, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. Consult your doctor before adding supplements to your diet because fish oil can cause side effects and may interact with other medications.
Can Fish Oil Cause Gas and Frequent Bowel Movements?
Fish oil can cause uncomfortable side effects. Photo Credit gbh007/iStock/Getty Images

Omega-3 Deficiencies

You need a healthy balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids to prevent inflammation associated with a range of diseases. Babies who don't get sufficient omega-3 fatty acids during fetal development risk developing vision problems and nerve disorders, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. Symptoms of omega-3 fatty acid deficiencies in adults include depression and mood swings, dry skin, poor memory, fatigue, poor circulation and heart problems.

Fish Oil Side Effects

Fasting blood sugar levels may rise if you are diabetic and take fish oil supplements. Fish oil also may increase your risk of developing macular degeneration or worsen the symptoms. It also has been associated with an increased risk of developing prostate cancer, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. The most common side effects of fish oil supplements are bloating, belching, gas and diarrhea. Taking a fish oil supplement also can cause loose stools, nosebleeds and rashes, according to Medline Plus. The supplement also can leave a fishy smell on your breath. The UMMC also notes that taking a time-release fish oil supplement may cut back on intestinal symptoms.

Minimizing Impact

Take the supplements with meals to prevent digestive side effects. Freezing supplements prior to taking them may reduce side effects, as may time-release preparations. Avoid taking more than 3 grams of fish oil per day per day, because it can interfere with normal blood clotting and reduce the effectiveness of your immune system.

Dosage

Fish oil is sold in capsules or as a liquid. To counteract the effects of heart disease, take 1 gram per day of a fish oil supplement, while 2 to 4 grams a day are recommended to lower high cholesterol, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. You can receive the same benefits from eating fish high in docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids such as mackerel, tuna, salmon, herring and halibut.
www.livestrong.com

Vitamin C & Iron Overload

Every cell in the body needs iron. Many health conditions involve iron overload. Organs and body tissues store excess iron, which may associated with serious health complications and even death. Vitamin C works synergistically with iron absorption in the body. Long-term use of high doses of vitamin C may increase the risk of adverse effects in diseases such as hemochromatosis and thalassemia. Check with your health care provider before taking iron or vitamin C supplements; inform your doctor of all supplements you take.
Vitamin C & Iron Overload
Vitamin C supplementation may involve risk of iron overload. Photo Credit pills and bottle image by Paul Hill from Fotolia.com.

Significance

In the U.S. 42 million people are at risk for iron toxicity, according to the Iron Overload Diseases Association. Low levels of iron protect against disease. The association reports high levels of iron disrupt the immune system, allowing for infection. High levels of iron can cross the blood-brain barrier, worsening problems such as Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, Lou Gehrig's disease, Parkinson's disease and psychological disorders, according to the association.

Effects

The body does not excrete excess iron. Donating blood provides a means of reducing iron levels. Ascorbic acid, in the natural state and in supplemental vitamin C, enhances iron absorption. Vitamin C doses in excess of 2,000 mg cause iron overload in the iron toxic disorder hemochromatosis and in thalassemia, a hemoglobin disorder, according to "Merck Manual."

Considerations

Long exposure to high doses of vitamin C can cause iron toxicity and possible tissue damage in those with hereditary hemochromatosis, according to the The National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. This problem does not appear to occur in healthy people. The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academies has identified an upper intake level of vitamin C of 2,000 mg for men and women 20 years of age and older.

History

The American Chemical Society reports the Landmark research by chemist J. L. Svirbely in 1937 led to the use of vitamin C as a treatment for scurvy, according to the American Chemical Society. In 1962 administration of vitamin C along with the drug desferrioxamine to remove iron overload in British children with thalassemia resulted in a two-fold increase in iron, according to Northern California Thalassemia Center. Trials continued into the 1970s to determine what amounts of drugs and vitamin C were appropriate. During these trials, 500 mg of vitamin C taken with these drugs caused a decrease in cardiac function, according to the center. Discontinuing use of vitamin C returned cardiac performance to normal.

Expert Insight

The U.S. National Library of Medicine reports vitamin C has significant action on iron storage in the body. Studies of iron metabolism at the cellular level, enhanced with the ascorbate form of vitamin C, showed that vitamin C not only increased iron amounts but also prevented the loss of iron.
www.livestrong.com

Nutrition Risk Factors of a Adult Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian Diet

All types of vegetarian diets including lacto-ovo vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate when properly planned, according to the American Dietetic Association. It also notes that vegetarian diets may provide health benefits including the prevention of certain diseases. However, if your lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is not carefully planned to ensure all nutrient requirements are met, you may be at risk for nutrient deficiencies.
Nutrition Risk Factors of a Adult Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian Diet
Poorly planned vegetarian diets increase your risk for nutrient deficiencies. Photo Credit VvoeVale/iStock/Getty Images

Background

Lacto-ovo vegetarians typically consume eggs and dairy products in addition to plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds and soy products. Key nutrients for vegetarians include omega-3 fatty acids, protein, iron, zinc, iodine, calcium and vitamins B-12 and D. Although these nutrients are important for vegetarians, lacto-ovo vegetarians who consume plenty of dairy products and eggs generally get adequate amounts of protein, calcium, iodine and vitamins B-12 and D.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Although some plant-based foods, such as canola oil and soybeans, contain omega-3 fatty acid ALA, they do not provide omega-3s DHA or EPA. Most studies that showed favorable effects of omega-3 on heart health or cognitive development of infants and children used DHA, EPA or both. The American Dietetic Association notes that DHA in breast milk is present in lower amounts in nursing women who follow a vegan or lacto-ovo vegetarian diet compared with non-vegetarian nursing moms. Common sources of DHA and EPA are found in fish and fish oils, DHA fortified foods or macroalgae-derived DHA supplements. Most obstetricians encourage pregnant and nursing women to take prenatal vitamin supplements that contain the omega-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA.

Iron

Iron-deficiency anemia is a concern in poorly planned vegetarian diets. Heme iron, the type of iron that is best absorbed by the human body, is found in animal-based foods such red meats, oysters and clams. Although nonheme iron is in plant-based foods, such as legumes and fortified whole grains, it is poorly absorbed compared with heme iron sources. The American Dietetic Association reports that iron intake recommendations for vegetarians are 1.8 times higher than for nonvegetarians. The Foods lacto-ovo vegetarians commonly eat, such as dietary calcium, phytates in legumes and whole grains and soybeans may inhibit nonheme iron absorption in the body. Taking a multivitamin supplement containing iron may help prevent your risk for developing iron-deficiency anemia.

Zinc

Lacto-ovo vegetarians have an increased risk for zinc deficiency because meats are a main source of zinc. Beans and grains usually have compounds that can inhibit zinc absorption in the body, and vegetarians may require up to 50 percent more zinc than non-vegetarians. The Office of Dietary Supplements notes that exclusively breast-fed infants over 6 months of age are at risk for zinc deficiency if they don’t consume pureed meats, as breast milk doesn’t provide enough zinc for infants over 6 months old. Sources of zinc for lacto-ovo vegetarians include some multivitamin supplements and fortified baby yogurts.
www.livestrong.com

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fasting for Runners

Author BY   ANDREA CESPEDES  Food is fuel, especially for serious runners who need a lot of energy. It may seem counterintuiti...