Sustaining Central Hardwood Forests

Research Issue 

A number of challenges to sustain central hardwood forests face managers today. For example, it is difficult to sustain the current level of oak stocking in mature forests in many areas, especially on more productive sites. Oak species are often replaced by either more shade-tolerant species such as maples, or by fast growing species such as tulip tree (yellow-poplar) when forests are regenerated either by managed harvesting or natural disturbances. This is a problem in both upland and bottomland forests. 

Shortleaf pine was a once prominent species in our Missouri Ozark forests occurring on about 6 million acres, but today pine is present on only 10% of the original area. Sustaining pine in natural stands with hardwoods is problematic. Historically, plantation management was used successfully to grow pine, and research has shed much light on how to do that. But answers are still needed for how to regenerate and grow pine in natural forests where they face a high degree of competition from hardwoods.

Regeneration of pines and oaks is the foundation of sustaining these species on the landscape and to restoring them to areas where they once occurred. Much of our research addresses various key issues concerning managing forest regeneration so that the future forest has the desire species composition. Understanding how different combinations of site factors influence forest regeneration and interact with specific management practices (prescribed burning, harvesting, and thinning) is important to making site-specific management recommendations.

Our Research

We conduct numerous individual studies to explore specific aspects of oak and pine regeneration and to assess different combinations of silvicultural practices (vegetation management to control competing species using herbicides, prescribed burning or mechanical cutting) with regeneration methods (clearcut, shelterwood, group selection, single-tree selection). We make recommendations for regenerating forests to favor oak and pine species to sustain or increase their presence in the forest. A review of our many publications will direct readers to specific problems and their practical solutions. Much of the synthesis of our research is embodied in a recent update (2nd edition) of The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks

Expected Outcomes

Our longstanding efforts in the research on the ecology and silviculture of oak and pine forests of the Central Hardwood Region is the foundation for many of the recommendations made today to sustain these valuable forests. The threat of a catastrophic decline of oak in the Central Hardwood Region as well as throughout the eastern United States is great and would lead to a substantial loss of biodiversity of species dependent on oak and pine forests. Application of the knowledge in forest ecology and silviculture derived from our research can stop the loss of oak and pine species and improve the biological and economic productivity of our forests on both public and private lands. It is important that practical solutions to the problems in oak and pine regeneration and sustainability be useful to private landowners because they own most of the forest resource in the eastern United States.

Research Results

Schweitzer, C.J.; Dey, D.C. 2011. Residual stand characterization of structure and composition following initial shelterwood harvests in a mid-Cumberland Plateau escarpment forest, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 262: 1729-1741.

Villwock, J.L.; Kabrick, J.M.; McNab, W.H.; Dey, D.C. 2011. Landform and terrain shape indices are related to oak site index in the Missouri Ozarks. In: Proceedings: 17th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. GTR-NRS-P-78. Newtown Square, PA. USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station: 197-207.

Weigel, D.R.; Dey, D.C.; Peng, C-Y. J. 2011. Stump sprout dominance probabilities of five oak species in southern Indiana 20 years after clearcut harvesting. In Proceedings: 17th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. Newtown Square, PA. USDA Forest Service NRS-GTR-P-78: 10-22.

Dey, D.C.; Royo, A.A.; Brose, P.H., Hutchinson, T.F.; Spetich, M.A.; Stoleson, S.H. 2010. An ecologically based approach to oak silviculture: a synthesis of 50 years of oak ecosystem research in North America. Colombia Forestal 13(2): 201-222.

Motsinger, J.R.; Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Henderson, D.E.; Zenner, E.K. 2010. Effect of midstory and understory removal on the establishment and development of natural and artificial pin oak advance reproduction in bottomland forests. New Forests 39: 195-213.

Larsen, D.R.; Dey, D.C.; Faust, T. 2010. A stocking diagram for Midwestern eastern cottonwood-silver maple-American sycamore bottomland forests. Northern Journal Applied Forestry 27(4): 132-139.

Dey, D.C.; Fan, Z. 2009. A review of fire and oak regeneration and overstory recruitment. In: Hutchinson, T.F., ed. Proceedings of the 3rd Ffire in Eastern Oak Forests Conference; 2008 May 20-22; Carbondale, IL. NRS-GTR-P-46. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 2-20.

Dey, D.C.; Spetich, M.A.; Weigel, D.R.; Johnson, P.S.; Graney, D.L.; Kabrick, J.M. 2009. A suggested approach for design of oak (Quercus L.) regeneration research considering regional differences. New Forests 37: 123-135.

Dey, D.C.; Jacobs, D.F.; McNabb, K.; Miller, G.W.; Baldwin, V.C.; Foster, G.S.; Bridgwater, F. 2008. Artificial regeneration of major oak (Quercus) species in the eastern United States: a review of the literature. Forest Science 54(1): 77-106.

Dey, D.C.; Jensen, R.G.; Wallendorf, M.J. 2008. Single-tree harvesting reduces survival and growth of oak stump sprouts in the Missouri Ozark Highlands. In: Jacobs, D.F.; Michler, C.H. (eds.) Proceedings, 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-9; West Lafayette, IN. NRS-GTR-P-24. Newtown Square, PA: USDA, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 26-37. 

Dey, D.C.; Miller, G.W.; Kabrick, J.M. 2008. Sustaining northern red oak forests: Managing oak from regeneration to canopy dominance in mature stands. In: Deal, R.L. (tech. ed.) Proceedings: 2007 National Silviculture Workshop. PNW-GTR-733. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 91-105.

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Jensen, R.G.; Wallendorf, M. 2008.  The role of environmental factors in oak decline and mortality in the Ozark Highlands. Forest Ecology and Management 255: 1409-1417.

Kabrick, J.M.; Zenner, E.K.; Dey, D.C.; Gwaze, D.; Jensen, R.G. 2008. Using ecological land types to examine landscape-scale oak regeneration dynamics. Forest Ecology and Management 255: 3051-3062.

Parker, W.C.; Dey, D.C. 2008. Influence of overstory density on ecophysiology of red oak (Quercus rubra) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum) seedlings in central Ontario shelterwoods. Tree Physiology 28: 797-804.

Stambaugh, M.C.; Guyette, R.P.; Dey, D.C. 2007. What fire frequency is appropriate for shortleaf pine regeneration and survival? In: Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Gwaze, D. (eds.). NRS-GTR-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 121-128.

Weigel, D.R.; Dey, D.C. 2007. Fifteen years of stump sprout development for five oak species in southern Indiana. In: Proceedings: 15th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. SRS-GTR-101. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 553-559.

Weigel, D.R.; Dey, D.C.; Peng, C-Y J. 2006. Stump sprout dominance probabilities of five oak species in southern Indiana 15 years after clearcut harvesting. In: Connor, K.F. (ed.) Proceedings: 13th Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service. SRS-GTR-92: 551-558

Bellocq, M.I.; Jones, C.; Dey, D.C.; Turgeon, J.J. 2005. Does the shelterwood method to regenerate oak forests affect acorn production and predation?Forest Ecology and Management 205: 311-323.

Dey, D.C.; Hartman, G. 2005. Returning fire to Ozark Highland forest ecosystems: effects on advance regeneration. Forest Ecology and Management 217: 37-53.

Dey, D.; Kabrick, J. 2004. Regenerating oaks in Missouri’s bottomlands. Missouri Conservationist 65(7): 18-22.

Dey, D. 2002. The ecological basis for oak silviculture in eastern North America. In: McShea, W.J.; Healy, W.M. (eds.) Oak Forest Ecosystems: Ecology and Management for Wildlife. Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University Press. 

Spetich, M.A.; Dey, D.C.; Johnson, P.S.; Graney, D.L. 2002.  Competitive capacity of Quercus rubra L. planted in Arkansas’ Boston Mountains. Forest Science 48(3):504-517

Dey, D.C.; Parker, W.C. 1997.  Morphological indicators of stock quality and performance of red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings underplanted in a central Ontario shelterwood. New Forest 14:145-156.

Dey, D.C.; Parker, W.C. 1997. Overstory density affects on the performance of underplanted red oak (Quercus rubra L.) in Ontario. Northern Journal Applied Forestry 14(3):120-125.

Dey, D.C.; Johnson, P.S.; Garrett, H.E. 1996. Modeling the regeneration of oak stands in the Missouri Ozark Highlands. Canadian Journal Forest Research 26(4):573-583.

Dey, D.C.; Ter-Mikaelian, M.; Johnson, P.S.; Shifley, S.R. 1996. Users guide to ACORn: a comprehensive Ozark regeneration simulator. NC-GTR-180. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 35 p.

Research Participants 

Principal Investigators

• Daniel C. Dey, USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Research Forester
• John M. Kabrick, USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Research Forester
• Steve R. Shifley, USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Research Forester

Research Partners

• Missouri Department of Conservation
• The Nature Conservancy
• Department of Forestry, University of Missouri-Columbia, The School of Natural Resources
• Purdue University, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources,

For further information log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/

Intensive Management of Hardwood Plantings

Research Issue 

In the 1960s the diminishing supply of quality hardwood saw timber, especially black walnut, raised the question of how best to grow hardwoods in plantations to assure future supplies.  At the time, we determined the most promising native hardwood for timber production in intensively managed plantings was black walnut, white ash, and several of the oak species.  This assumed with proper site selection and intensive management that trees would yield high quality veneer logs that traditionally sold for as much as four times their value if processed as sawlogs.   Problems with producing veneer logs on open-grown walnut in a pure stand along with the substantial upfront costs for plantation establishment that must be carried through the rotation, lead researchers to conclude that landowners should first evaluate their existing hardwood stands for management opportunities and whether they had soils suitable for long-term growth of any fine hardwoods before investing in a hardwood planting.  Secondary considerations included how to manage the competing vegetation and availability of labor to carry out management practices such as weed control, pruning, thinning, harvesting of seed crops, and the final timber harvest.   Off site plantings by both researchers and landowners, increasing risks of species specific invasive pests, and changes in cost-share recommendations have lead current recommendations for plantations with a mix of species.  Several of the species recommended for  underplanting or interplanting to increase hardwood tree growth are now considered invasive species and alternatives are needed.

Our Research

Much of our early research on plantation culture, especially for black walnut, was summarized at more than thirty how to notes in the Walnut Notes (1988).  More recent research has concentrated on evaluating the effects of different ground cover s, especially native grasses and legumes, on growth of sapling and pole-sized trees of planted walnut, pecans, oak, and ash.  Our research with interplanting native woody plants that fix atmospheric nitrogen has not produced suitable alternatives to species now considered invasive.   In cooperation with the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, we have expanded our research to identifying management practices that will increase seed yields for hard mast species.   Emphasis has been on improving tree nutrition and grafting to superior selections.

Research Results

Ponder, F., Jr.  2010.  Response of young ash trees to cultural treatments not all positive.  In: Michler, C.H.; Ginzel, M.D. (eds.) 2010. Proceedings: Symposium on Ash in North America; 2010 March 9-11; West Lafayette, IN. NRS-GTR-P-72. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 64.

Van Sambeek, J.W.  2010.  Database for estimating tree responses of walnut and other hardwoods to ground cover management practices.  In: McNeil, D.L. (ed.)  Proceedings: 6th International Walnut Symposium.  Acta Horticulturae 861: 245-252.

Ponder, F., Jr.  2009.  Benefits and drawbacks of tree shelters.  Walnut Council Bulletin 36(3): 1, 4-5.

Reid, W.; Coggeshall, M.; Garrett, H.E.; Van Sambeek, J. 2009.  Growing black walnut for nut production.  Agroforestry in Action AF1011-2009.  Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry. 16 pp.

Van Sambeek, J.W.; Reid, W.  2009.  Foliar analyses for improved nut production: Step 1 and Step 2.  Missouri Nut Growers Association Newsletter 9(2): 5-6 and 9(3): 4-7.

Coggeshall, M.V.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Garrett, H.E.  2008. Grafting influences on early acorn production in swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor Wild.).   In: Jacobs, D.F.; Michler, C.H. (eds.) 2008. Proceedings: 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-9; West Lafayette, IN. NRSGTR--P-24. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 20-25.

Ponder, F., Jr.; Eivazi, F.  2008.  Activities of five enzymes following soil disturbance and weed control in a Missouri forest. Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Restoration 5(1): 68-76.

Van Sambeek, J.W.  2008.  Plantation establishment: site preparation and tree planting methods.   Walnut Council Bulletin 35(1): 1, 5, 7, 10-11.  

Van Sambeek, J.W.; Wallace, D.C.; Brundage, R.S.; Palm, H.L.; Slusher, J. 2008.  Principles for managing immature black walnut in mixed hardwood stands.  Walnut Council Bulletin 35(2): 1, 5-6, 12-14.  [TS#19186]

Ponder, F., Jr.; Jones, J.E.; Mueller, R.  2005.  Using poultry litter in black walnut nutrient management.   Journal of Plant Nutrition 28:1355-1364.

Van Sambeek, J. W.  2005. Evaluating the effectiveness of ground cover management in oak plantings and stands.  In: Weigel, D.R.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Michler, C.H., eds. Ninth workshop on seedling physiology and growth problems in oak plantings.  NC-GTR-262. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 21.

Geyer, Wayne A.; Ponder, Felix, Jr.  2004.  Site relationships and black walnut height growth in natural stands in eastern Kansas.  In: Michler, C.H.; Pijut, P.M.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Coggeshall, M.V.; Seifert, J.; Woeste, K.; Overton, R.; Ponder, F., Jr. (eds.) Proceedings: 6th Walnut Council Research Symposium; NC-GTR-243. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 77-80.

Ponder, F., Jr.  2004.  Soils and nutrition management for black walnuts.  In: Michler, C.H.; Pijut, P.M.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Coggeshall, M.V.; Seifert, J.; Woeste, K.; Overton, R.; Ponder, F., Jr. (eds.) Proceedings: 6th Walnut Council Research Symposium; NC-GTR-243. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 71-76

Hammons, B.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Rickman, J.  2004.  Beyond the wild nut: moving toward profitable black walnut nut crops.  In: Michler, C.H.; Pijut, P.M.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Coggeshall, M.V.; Seifert, J.; Woeste, K.; Overton, R.; Ponder, F., Jr. (eds.) Proceedings: 6th Walnut Council Research Symposium; NC-GTR-243. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 156-160.

Van Sambeek, J. W.; Garrett, H. E.  2004.  Ground cover management in walnut and other hardwood plantings.  In: Michler, C. E.; Pijut, P. M.; Van Sambeek, J. W.; five others.  Proceedings: Sixth Black Walnut Symposium. NC-GTR-243.  St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 85-100.   

Carlisle, J.D.; Geyer, W. A.; Van Sambeek, J. W.  2003. Increasing amounts of chemical weed control increase growth of white ash, white oak, and black walnut saplings in a tall fescue sod.  In: Van Sambeek, J. W.; Dawson, Jeffery O.; Ponder Jr., Felix; Loewenstein, Edward F.; Fralish, James S. (eds.) Proceedings: 13th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. NC-GTR-234. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 449-452.

Van Sambeek, J. W.  2003.  Legume ground covers alter defoliation response of black walnut saplings to drought and anthracnose.  In: Van Sambeek, J. W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Loewenstein, E.F.; Fralish, J.S. (eds.)  Proceedings: 13th Central Hardwood Forest Conference.  NC-GTR-234.  St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 556-564.   

Jones, J.E.; Mueller, R.; Van Sambeek, J.W. (eds.)   1998. Nut Production Handbook for Eastern Black Walnut.  Republic, MO: Southwest Missouri Resources, Conservation & Development, Inc. 150 pp.

Ponder, F., Jr.   1993.  Performance of hardwoods planted with autumn olive after removing prior cover.  In: Gillespie, A.R.; Parker, G.R.; Pope, P.E.; Rink, G. (eds.) Proceedings: 9th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. NC-GTR-161. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station: 447-454.

Burde, L.E., ed.  1988.  Walnut Notes.  St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station.  

Van Sambeek, J.W.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Rietveld, W.J.  1986. Legumes increase growth and alter foliar nutrient levels of black walnut saplings. Forest Ecology and Management 17: 159-167.

Research Participants 

Principal Investigators

• J.W. Van Sambeek, Research Physiologist, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Felix Ponder, Jr., Research Soil Scientist (retired), US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 

Research Partners

• University of Missouri  Center for Agroforestry
• USDA Agricultural Research Service
• Lincoln University
• Walnut Council
• Northern Nut Growers Association
• USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service

For further information log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/

Oak Decline

Research Issue

Management solutions are urgently needed to cope with the large number of oak trees that are declining and dying in oak-dominated forests.  This problem is referred to as oak decline and has become a chronic problem for the region’s aging oak forests. Oaks most susceptible to decline are red oak group species such as black oak (Quercus velutina) and scarlet oak (Q. coccinea); relatively old (>70 years) or large trees; growing on dry sites with shallow or rocky soils, especially on broad ridges or south-facing slopes. 

Periodic large-scale episodes of oak decline are often associated with drought. Other events that can incite decline include repeated defoliation by insects or injury from frost, ice, or wind.  Once oaks begin to decline, they become susceptible to many other kinds of diseases and insect pests that cause further stress or damage. These include armillaria root rots, which girdle tree root; hypoxylon cankers, which kill stems; red oak borer larvae and carpenter worms, which damage wood; and two-lined chestnut borers, which kill branches and whole trees by girdling them with their tunnels. 

Even though oak decline and associated diseases and insect infestations have occurred in the past, the extent of these problems today is unprecedented because red oaks are now the most common tree species on poor-quality sites. These red oaks largely established after the extensive timber harvesting and grazing practices of the late 1800s and early 1900s. Now thousands of acres of forest land containing red oaks are reaching or surpassing maturity and are thus increasingly susceptible to oak decline. Moreover, research conducted in the Missouri Ozarks suggests that populations of the fungal agents of armillaria root rot are increasing because of the increased availability of dead or dying root tissue from stressed oak tress. 

This combination of forest age, species composition, and accumulated diseases and stresses has caused oak decline to change from an episodic problem to a chronic one that has greatly affected not just the oak forests themselves but also the animals and people who live in or near them. These effects include decreased timber value; decreased acorn production, which affects both oak reproduction and wildlife food amounts; increased fire danger; and reduced recreation opportunities. 

Our Research

NRS scientists in this unit are investigating oak decline and identifying management solutions specific for the Ozarks Highlands. Research currently underway or in development has two aspects: 

Forest Restoration—Developing methods for restoring and managing pine-oak woodlands with a more diverse mixture of  site-adapted species. In this work,we examine methods for reestablishing and growing shortleaf pine reproduction along with oaks in forests and woodlands at vulnerable sites for oak decline. We are developing prescribed fire techniques and other disturbances that will create compositions and structures thought to exist prior to extensive European settlement in the Ozark Highlands. We are cooperating with the University of Missouri and the Missouri Department of Conservation. 

Silviculture—Developing silvicultural methods for mitigating oak decline and maintaining healthy oak forests and woodlands. In this work, we are developing methods to identify at-risk trees and methods for thinning and stand improvement harvesting that can reduce oak mortality. We are cooperating with the University of Missouri and the Missouri Department of Conservation.

Expected Outcomes

Expected outcomes include management guides and recommendations to be used by professional foresters and forest landowners for restoring and managing shortleaf pine and oak mixtures and methods for maintaining healthy oak forests and woodlands.

Research Results

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Shifley, S.R.; Villwock, J.L.  2011.  Early survival and growth of planted shortleaf pine seedlings as a function of initial size and overstory stocking.   In: Fei, S.; Lhotka, J.M.; Stringer, J.W.; Gottschalk, K.W.; Miller, G.W. (eds.) Proceedings: 17th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2010 April 5-7; Lexington, KY. NRS-GTR-P-78. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 277-286.

Fan, Z.; Xiuli, F.; Spetich, M.A.; Shifley, S.R.; Moser, W.K.; Jensen, R.G.; Kabrick, J.M. 2011. Developing a stand hazard index for oak decline in upland Oak forests of the Ozark Highlands, Missouri. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 28(1): 19-28. 

Fan, Z.; Kabrick, J.M.; Spetich, M.A.; Shifley, S.R.; Jensen, R.G.  2008.  Oak mortality associated with crown dieback and oak borer attack in the Ozark Highlands.   Forest Ecology and Management 255: 2297-2305

Jensen, R.G.; Kabrick, J.M.  2008.  Comparing single-tree selection, group selection, and clearcutting for regenerating oaks and pines in the Missouri Ozarks.   In: Jacobs, D.F.; Michler, C.H. (eds.) 2008. Proceedings: 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-9; West Lafayette, IN. NRS-GTR-P-24. Newtown Square, PA: USDA, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 38-49.

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Jensen, R.G.; Wallendorf, M.l  2008.  The role of environmental factors in oak decline and mortality in the Ozark Highlands.   Forest Ecology and Management. 255: 1409-1417.

Kabrick, J.M. Fan, Z.; Shifley, S.R.  2007.  Red oak decline and mortality by ecological land type in the Missouri ozarks.   SRS-GTR-101. Asheville, NC USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 181-186 [CD-ROM].

Dwyer, J.P.; Kabrick, J.M.; Wetteroff, J. 2007. Do improvement harvests mitigate oak decline in Missouri Ozark forests?. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 24(2): 123-128.

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Gwaze, D.  2007.  Shortleaf pine restoration and ecology in the Ozarks: Proceedings of a symposium.   NRS-GTR-P-15. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 215 p.

Shifley, S.R.; Fan, Z.; Kabrick, J.M.; Jensen, R.G. 2006. Oak mortality risk factors and mortality estimation. Forest Ecology and Management 229:16-26

Heitzman, E.; Muzika, R.M.; Kabrick, J.; Guldin, J.M.  2004.  Assessment of Oak Decline in Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma.   In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C. (eds.) Proceedings: 14th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2004 March 16-19; Wooster, OH. NE-GTR-316. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 510.

Research Participants

Principal Investigator

• John M. Kabrick, Research Forester, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Stephen R. Shifley, Research Forester, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Dan C. Dey, Research Forester and Project Leader, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 

Research Partners

• W. Keith Moser, Research Forester, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Marty Spetich, Research Forest Ecologist; and Jim Guldin, Project Leader; US Forest Service, Southern Research Station
• John Dwyer and Rose-Marie Muzika, University of Missouri, Columbia
• Zhaofei Fan, Mississippi State University
• Cary Steen and Randy Jensen, Missouri Department of Conservation
• Charlie Studyvin, Forest Silviculturist, USDA Forest Service, Mark Twain National Forest

For further information log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/

Restoring Forests in Bottomland Fields

Research Issue 

Public land managers and private land owners have a strong interest in regenerating native oak species (Quercus spp.) on what are largely agricultural floodplains. Bottomland oak species are highly valued for timber products and wildlife habitat. They are of conservation concern because of the substantial decline in oaks from historic levels and the difficulty in regenerating them on highly productive floodplains. Much (>85%) of the original bottomland forests in Missouri have been cleared and the land put in agricultural production.

The Great Flood of 1993 inundated floodplains throughout much of the summer ruining bottomland farms and causing extensive mortality of oaks in forests along the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Since 1993, many abandoned bottomland crop fields have naturally regenerated to forests dominated by pioneering species such as cottonwood (Populus deltoids), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and willow (Salix nigra). These species are abundant in remnant floodplain forests, thus ensuring a local seed supply.  They are prolific annual seed producers whose seed is easily dispersed by wind and water. Seed germination is favored on mineral soils in open environments, typical of conditions following abandonment of bottomland crop fields. Their seedlings exhibit rapid juvenile growth, which makes them highly competitive on the productive bottomland soils.

Former small- to moderate-sized bottomland crop fields have developed into well-stocked sapling stands dominated by these pioneer species over the past 12 years. Cottonwood, willow, sycamore, silver maple and other early successional tree species are native to bottomlands and are considered desirable reproduction. A widespread pattern in forest succession on former bottomland crop fields is the lack of oaks and other nut-producing trees. For example, Shear and others (1996) found a lack of hard mast species in 50-year-old forests that naturally regenerated on bottomland crop fields in southwestern Kentucky. Thus, artificial regeneration of oaks is needed to increase the likelihood that oaks are present in future forests.

To-date, traditional methods of planting bareroot oak seedlings or direct seeding acorns in bottomlands have not always been successful. For example, in a survey of 4-year-old Wetland Reserve Program plantings in the Mississippi River floodplain, researchers found that only 9% of the total reforested land in 13 Mississippi counties met the Natural Resources Conservation Service requirement for at least 125 hard mast stems per acre in 3-year-old stands.  

Oak regeneration failures in bottomland crop fields are largely a result of the low competitiveness of small oak seedlings on these sites, which can producetremendous herbaceous biomass in one summer. Small oak seedlings are also less competitive than the pioneer tree species that invade abandoned crop fields. In addition, oak plantings are not often maintained by controlling competing vegetation, which makes successful oak regeneration less likely. Oak species are moderately tolerant to intolerant of shade and thus unable to persist in the heavy shade of competing vegetation.

Oak regeneration success can be improved, in part, by planting large seedlings, particularly those having well-developed root systems. Nursery managers can produce hardwood bareroot seedlings with large root systems that have 5 or more large lateral roots by undercutting the taproot, growing seedlings at lower seedbed densities, or by transplanting 1-0 seedlings for a second year. Air pruning the roots of seedlings grown in open-bottomed containers is another way to promote the growth of large lateral roots and dense fibrous root systems.

In the Midwest, several private nurseries have begun commercial production of large (e.g., 3- to 5-gallon) container seedlings that are being used in the afforestation of bottomland crop fields on public and private lands. The Forrest Keeling Nursery of Elsberry, Missouri has developed a nursery cultural technique, the Root Production Method (RPM®), to produce high-quality hardwood seedlings with large basal diameters and heights, and substantial fibrous root systems for regenerating floodplains. For the past 5 years or so, these large container seedlings have been planted in various floodplain situations throughout the Midwest. In 1999, we began a study to evaluate the performance of these seedlings in the afforestation of bottomland crop fields. This paper presents early survival and growth performance of large container seedlings compared with that of 1-0 bareroot seedlings in regenerating pin oak and swamp white oak in bottomland crop fields along the lower Missouri River. We discuss the role of large container seedlings in regenerating oaks in floodplains.

Unsuccessful regeneration may also be a consequence of not properly matching the oak species to soil nutrient and hydrological conditions.  Soils within the Missouri and Mississippi River floodplains are frequently dominated by alluvial deposits from calcareous soils throughout the Midwest resulting in high pHs.  In addition, flooding can both deposit nutrient-rich soil as well as leach nutrients from the rooting zone, especially soil nitrate nitrogen.  Duration and depth of flooding also need to be considered both when choosing which species to plant as well as the type of planting stock. Taller and larger seedlings subjected to partial inundation are more likely to survive than seedling overtopped by poorly aerated backwater.

Our Research

In crop fields in the Missouri River floodplain, we planted large container (RPM®) and 1-0 bareroot seedlings of pin oak (Quercus palustris) and swamp white oak (Q. bicolor). We also evaluated the benefits of soil mounding and a grass (Agrostis gigantean) cover crop. RPM® oak seedlings had significantly greater survival and basal diameter increment after three years than bareroot seedlings. RPM® trees lost significantly more height during the first 3 years than bareroot seedlings due to rabbit herbivory, which was substantially greater in the natural vegetation than the redtop grass fields. Oak seedlings in redtop grass cover grew substantially more in diameter and height than oaks competing with natural vegetation. Soil mounding had no significant effect on oak survival or growth. Swamp white oak RPM® seedlings produced acorns annually the first 4 years. Planting large container seedlings in redtop grass improved early oak regeneration success, and rapidly restored acorn production. Application of slow-release nitrogen as urea or ammonium nitrate or interplanting of nitrogen-fixing shrubs failed to improve the growth of established oak saplings unless applied with iron sulfate to reduce soil pHs.   The gradual transition of the understory vegetation to native nitrogen-fixing plants further suggests soil nitrogen in these bottomland soils is not in a form available to most plants.  In cooperation with the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, we have evaluated differences in survival and growth both within and among hardwood seedlings subjected to partial inundation for up to 6 weeks in both stagnant and flowing flood water.  Variation in flood tolerance tends to be greater within stands than for topographic position for oak species adapted to bottomland and upland fields.

Expected Outcomes

We have identified several promising practices and seedling types that can be used to successfully restore oak to future bottomland forests when bringing marginal agricultural lands back into forest production. The potential is there in Missouri to restore forests on former agricultural bottomlands that include the desired amount of oak trees on tens of thousands of acres. In addition, many of these techniques can be used in other regions to restore bottomland oak forests, for example, on hundreds of thousands of acres in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley. The principles and practices that we developed for restoring bottomland forests can be used by private landowners with small acreages, private duck hunting clubs, and public land agencies.

Research Results

Burhans, D.E.; Root, B.G.; Shaffer, T.L.; Dey, D.C. 2010. Songbird nest survival is invariant to early-successional restoration treatments in a large river floodplain. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 122(2): 307-317.

Gardiner, E.S.; Dey, D.C.; Stanturf, J.A.; Lockhart, B.R. 2010. Approaches to restoration of oak forests on farmed lowlands of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Colombia Forestal 13(2): 223-236.

Dey, D.C.; Gardiner, E.S.; Kabrick, J.M.; Stanturf, J.A.; Jacobs, D.F. 2010. Innovations in afforestation of agricultural bottomlands to restore native forests in eastern USA. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 25(Suppl. 8): 25-32.

Millspaugh, J.J.; Schultz, J.H.; Mong, T.W.; Burhans, D.; Walter, W.D.; Bredesen, R.; Pritchert, Jr., R.D.; Dey, D.C. 2009. Agroforestry wildlife benefits. In: Garrett, H.E. (ed.) North American Agroforestry: An integrated science and practice, 2nd edition. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy: 257-286.

Dey, D.C.; Jacobs, D.F.; McNabb, K.; Miller, G.W.; Baldwin, V.C.; Foster, G.S.; Bridgwater, F. 2008. Artificial regeneration of major oak (Quercus) species in the eastern United States: a review of the literature. Forest Science 54(1): 77-106.

Ponder, F., Jr.; Kramer, M.J.; Eivazi, F.  2008.  Effect of fertilizer treatments on an alkaline soil and on early performance of two bottomland oak species.  In: Jacobs, D.F.; Michler, C.H. (eds.) Proceedings: 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. NRS-GTR-P-24.  Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 552-558.

Steele, K.L.; Kabrick, J.M.; Jensen, R.G.; Wallendorf, M.J.; Dey, D.C. 2008. Analysis of riparian afforestation methods in the Missouri Ozarks. In: Jacobs, D.F.; Michler, C.H. (eds.) Proceedings, 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 2008 April 8-9; West Lafayette, IN. NRS-GTR-P-24. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 80-90.

Walsh, M.P.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Coggeshall, M.V.  2008. Variation in flood tolerance of container-grown seedlings of swamp white oak, bur oak, and white oak.  In: Jacobs, Douglass; Michler, Charles H. (eds.) 16th Central Hardwood Forest Conference.  Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-24.  Radnor, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 446-456.  

Coggeshall, Mark V.; Van Sambeek, J. W.; Schlarbaum, Scott E.  2007.  Genotypic variation in flood tolerance of black walnut and three southern bottomland oaks.  In: Buckley, D.S.; Clatterbuck, Wayne K. (eds.) Proceedings: 15th Central Hardwood Forest Conference.  SRS-GTR-101.  Ashville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 629-637.

He, H.S.; Dey, D.C.; Fan, X.; Hooten, M.B.; Kabrick, J.M.; Wikle, C.K.; Fan, Z. 2007. Mapping pre-European settlement vegetation at fine resolutions using a hierarchical Bayesian model and GIS. Plant Ecology 191: 85-94.

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Motsinger, J.R. 2007. Evaluating the flood tolerance of bottomland hardwood artificial reproduction.  In: Buckley, D.D.; Clatterbuck, W.K. (eds.) Proceedings: 15th central hardwood forest conference. SRS-GTR-101. Asheville, NC: USDA Southern Research Station:  727-733. 

Van Sambeek, J. W.; McGraw, Robert L.; Kabrick, John M.; Coggeshall, Mark V.; Unger, Irene M.; Dey, Daniel C.  2007.  Developing a field facility for evaluating flood tolerance of hardwood seedlings and understory ground covers.   In: Buckley, David S.; Clatterbuck, Wayne K. (eds.) Proceedings: 15th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. SRS-GTR-101.  Ashville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station:  727-733.  

Dey, D.C.; Kabrick, J.M.; Gold, M. 2006. The role of large container seedlings in afforesting oaks in bottomlands. P. 218-223 In Connor, K.F., ed. Proc. 13th Biennial southern silvicultural research conf. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92.

Kabrick, J.M.; Dey, D.C.; Van Sambeek, J.W.; Wallendorf, M.; Gold, M.A. 2005. Soil properties and growth of swamp white oak and pin oak on bedded soils in the lower Missouri River floodplain. Forest Ecology and Management 204: 315-327.

Van Sambeek, J.W.; Coggeshall, Mark V.  2005. Evaluating physiological response and genetic variation of oak species for flood tolerance. Missouri Forestry Newsletter 20(2): 3-4. [pdf - You may download a free pdf readerfrom Adobe.]

Dey, D.C.; Lovelace, W.; Kabrick, J.M.; Gold, M.A. 2004. Production and early field performance of RPM seedlings in Missouri floodplains. In: Michler, C.H.; Pijut, P.M.; Van Sambeek, J.; Coggeshall, M.; Seifert, J.; Woeste, K.; Overton, R. (eds.) Black walnut in a new century. Pproceedings of the 6th Walnut Council research symposium; 2004 July 25-28; Lafayette, IN. NC-GTR-243. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 59-65.

Dey, D.; Kabrick, J. 2004. Regenerating oaks in Missouri’s bottomlands. Missouri Conservationist 65(7): 18-22.

Dugger, S.; Dey, D.C.; Millspaugh, J.J. 2004. Vegetation cover effects mammal herbivory on planted oaks and success of reforesting Missouri River bottomland fields. In" Connor, K.F. (ed.) Proceedings: 12th Biennial Southern Silvicultural Conference. 24-28 February 2003. Biloxi, MS. SRS-GTR-71. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 3-6. 

Research Participants 

Principal Investigators

• Daniel C. Dey, Research Forester, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• John M. Kabrick, Research Forester, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Jerry Van Sambeek, Research Physiologist, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 
• Felix Ponder, Jr., Research Soil Scientist, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station 

Research Partners

• Lincoln University 
• University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 
• Missouri Department of Conservation 
• U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• USDA Agricultural Research Service 
• Forrest Keeling Nursery

For further information log on website:
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/

Contrasting Silvicultural Systems

Research Issue

Silviculture is defined by the Society of American Foresters as "the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society on a sustainable basis." In order to provide science-based guidance to society and landowners to support their silvicultural decisions, scientists must implement replicated examples of different silvicultural treatments and assess their outcomes. Such research often requires decades of measurements, and outcomes and outputs vary by forest type and ecoregion. Results can also be complicated by interactions among silvicultural systems and treatments and other landscape scale disturbances

Our Research

In 1980, John Bjorkbom installed a long-term study to contrast stand development under 5 different silvicultural systems through the course of a full rotation. The study was installed on the Kane Experimental Forest in 1980 with a plan to run through 2060. The study contrasts stand development in even-age systems with shelterwood regeneration method, two-age systems with shelterwood regeneration method, single-tree selection system, group selection system, and an economic selection system that includes harvest of only sawtimber-sized trees. All trees 1.0" and larger are tallied every 5 years, and 6-foot radius regeneration sample plots are also tallied by species and height class on the same interval. Treatment plots are 4.9 acre squares, and there have been two cutting cycles in the study area.

Expected Outcomes

The study is designed to allow a comprehensive comparison of stand development, productivity, and yield over a full even-age rotation.  At each cutting cycle, one of the four replications in the even-age system is regenerated, so that by the end of the study period, the four plots will represent a balanced forest.  Similarly, two of the two-age plots were harvested at the beginning of the study, and two more will be harvested at the mid-point of the study.  Interactions of silvicultural system with sugar maple decline, beech bark disease, and white-tailed deer impacts complicate analyses but enrich the potential information to be gathered from the study. 

Research Results

Stout, Susan L.  1994. Silvicultural systems and stand dynamics in Allegheny hardwoods. New Haven, CT: Yale, Univ. D.F. Dissertation.

Research Participants

Principal Investigator

• Susan Stout, USDA Forest Service- Northern Research Station Project Leader/Research Forester

Research Partner

• Allegheny National Forest

For further information log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/

Herbicide treatments

Research Issue

Forestry herbicides are a versatile, cost-effective tool that can be used in a variety of ways to help manage forest vegetation.  In mature forests, herbicide treatments can be used to control interfering plants that prevent new seedlings from developing on the forest floor.  In young forests, they can be used to reduce competition around selected trees, thus enhancing growth and survival of individual trees that provide wildlife food, wood products, and seed sources for future forests. 

Our Research

Field trials identified the effectiveness of various herbicides when applied to target trees using four manual application methods: 1) stem injection, 2) basal spray, 3) cut-stump, and 4) foliar spray.  Research results provide guidelines for prescribing the proper herbicide , application method, chemical concentration, and treatment timing for various target species.

Expected Outcomes 

Manual herbicide application methods are especially suited for the small forest ownerships in the rugged Appalachians, where the use of mechanized methods is often limited by steep terrain.  These methods enable forest landowners to control interfering plants and enhance desirable vegetation using safe herbicides with minimal training and inexpensive equipment.

Research Results

Kochenderfer, J.D.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Miller, G.W. 2013. Extending the time interval for applying herbicide in cut-stump treatments on American beech. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 30(3): 118-124.

Kochenderfer, J.D.; Miller, G.W.; Kochenderfer, J.N. 2012. A comparison of two stem injection treatments applied to American beech in central West Virginia. Res. Pap. NRS-21. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 10 p.

Kochenderfer, Jeffrey D.; Kochenderfer, James N.; Miller, Gary W. 2012. Manual herbicide application methods for managing vegetation in Appalachian hardwood forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-96. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 59 p.

Miller, Gary W.; Stringer, Jeffrey W.; Mercker, David C. 2007. Technical guide to crop tree release in hardwood forests. Southern Regional Extension Forestry publication SREF-FM-011:24 p.

Kochenderfer, Jeffrey D.; Kochenderfer, James N.; Miller, Gary W. 2006. Controlling beech root and stump sprouts using the cut-stump treatment. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 23(3): 155-165. 

Kochenderfer, Jeffrey D.; Kochenderfer, James N.; Warner, David A.; Miller, Gary W. 2004. Preharvest manual herbicide treatments for controlling American beech in central West Virginia.  Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 21(1): 40-49. 

Miller, Gary W.; Kochenderfer, James N.; Gottschalk, Kurt W. 2004. Effect of pre-harvest shade control and fencing on northern red oak seedling development in the central Appalachians.  In: Spetich, Martin A., ed.; Upland Oak Ecology Symposium: History, Current Conditions, and Sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73; Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 311 p.; 182-189.

Kochenderfer, Jeffrey D.; Zedaker, Shepard M.; Johnson, James E.; Smith, David W.; Miller, Gary W. 2001. Herbicide hardwood crop tree release in central West Virginia. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 18(2): 46-54.

Research Participants

Principal Investigator

• Gary W. Miller, US Forest Service-NRS Research Forester

Research Partners

• Jeffrey D. Kochenderfer, US Forest Service- Monongahela National Forest Silviculturist
• James N. Kochenderfer, US Forest Service- NRS Research Forester (retired)

For further details log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/thinning_treatments/

Feller-Buncher and Cut-to-Length

Research Issue

The trend towards increased mechanization in forest harvesting is due to the need to meet productivity, cost, safety objectives, and environmental concerns.  Using machines to fell, delimb, bunch, and sort trees gives a logging company the potential to be more productive than using crews of hand fellers.

Our Research

The studies being conducted include time and motion data gathering for feller-buncher and cut-to-length systems, their impacts on the harvest site due to soil disturbance and compaction, and assessments on the profitability of such systems operating in hardwood forests.

Expected Outcomes

The time and motion data will be modeled and used to develop general cost and productivity equations that can be used to estimate the cost and production of alternative machines for a wide range of operating conditions.  The results should be valuable to managers, planners, and loggers considering the use of mechanized systems.

Research Results

LeDoux, Chris B. 2011. Harvesting systems for the northern forest hardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-91. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 65 p.

LeDoux, Chris B. 2010. Mechanized systems for harvesting eastern hardwoods.  Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-69. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 13 p.  

Wang, Jingxin; LeDoux, Chris B.; Li, Yaoxiang. 2005. Simulating cut-to-length harvesting operations in Appalachian hardwoods.   International Journal of Forest Engineering: 16(2): 11-27.

LeDoux, Chris B.; Huyler, Neil K. 2001. Comparison of two cut-to-length harvesting systems operating in Eastern hardwoods.  Journal of Forest Engineering: 12(1): 53-59.

Research Participants

Principal Investigator

• Dr. Chris B. LeDoux, US Forest Service- Northern Reseach Station Industrial Engineer (Retired)

Research Partners

• Dr. Jingxin Wang, West Virginia University

For More Information

• Toni Jones, US Forest Service - Northern Research Station, Computer Programmer

For further information log on website :
http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/timber/herbicides/