What Are the Health Benefits of Onion Seeds?

The seed pod of a Nigella sativa plant cultivating in a garden. Photo Credit MiaZeus/iStock/Getty Images

The name “onion seed” is somewhat of a misnomer, as the seed is not in the onion family. It is scientifically recognized as Nigella sativa, Latin for “black plant.” Greeks used the seed to treat numerous ailments, including parasitic worms, headache and toothaches. Nigella sativa has also been discovered in Egyptian tombs, reserved only for the most sacred items. It originated from the Mediterranean area and is cultivated in Northeast India, Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

Nutritional Information

According to Drugs.com, Nigella sativa contains up to 38 percent oil and up to 2.5 percent essential oil. It also contains calcium, fiber, iron, potassium and sodium. Nutritionally, the seeds contain 21 percent protein, 35 percent carbohydrate and 36 percent fat. A study in the August 15, 2013 issue of "Diagnostic Pathology" shows that Nigella sativa also contains compounds that help lower your risk of diabetes.

Essential Oil

Uses of Nigella sativa include the treatment of asthma, diarrhea and dyslipidemia, or abnormal concentrations of lipids in the blood. A King Saudi University study involving the department of veterinary medicine in Saudi Arabia, studied the changes experienced by the influence of the seed's essential oil on rats. They found the oil to have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, fever reducing, antineoplastic -- preventing the spread of malignant cells -- and pain-relieving properties. They also report that the oil "reduces blood pressure and increases respiration." The rats showed an increase in hemoglobin and a reduction in glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol. The benefits may lie in its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, but more studies are needed for definitive benefits.

Liver Transplant Study

In a September 2008 study led by Harran University medical director, Dr. Fahrettin Yildiz of Turkey, reported that Nigella sativa countered ischemia, or lack of blood flow, in the newly transplanted livers of rats. This is promising for many types of transplant surgery with the reperfusion, or return of blood flow, to the transplanted organ. Researchers cite the active ingredient as thymoquinone, which has analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.

Allergies

In a 2003 study by Humboldt University School of Medicine in Berlin, researchers evaluated the effects of Nigella sativa on allergies involving 152 people with some variation of allergic rhinitis, asthma or eczema. The participants were given capsules of 40 to 80 milligrams a day of Nigella sativa oil. Given a definitive scale to rate their symptoms, all reported some level of improvement with the treatment. The results proved, reported the researchers, “to be an effective adjuvant for the treatment of allergic diseases.”

Considerations

Although Nigella sativa has been used for centuries and only allergic skin reactions are the only side effects reported to date, relatively little is known regarding dosing, interactions with other medications, contraindications and toxicity of the spice. Consult a physician before adding the seeds or the oil to your diet or supplement regimen.

www.lvestrong.com

Alternatives to Black Seed Oil

Turmeric is promoted as a cancer fighter. Photo Credit Digital Vision./Digital Vision/Getty Images

You'll see black seed oil, officially known as Nigella sativa, promoted as an antioxidant, a liver protector, an alternative remedy for cancer, an inflammation fighter and an aid in lowering your blood pressure. Many other naturally occurring dietary agents are used for some of the same purposes that black seed oil is marketed for, including curcumin, milk thistle and garlic. Always consult a doctor before adding an herbal remedy to your diet.

Turmeric

Black seed oil has several active ingredients, chief among them the antioxidant thymoquinine, which is considered a possible phyotochemical chemoprotective agent, meaning it might help prevent cancer. Turmeric, also called curcumin, is often promoted for the same purpose. Research suggests that turmeric can destroy certain cancer cells and reduce inflammation, according to "The Essential Herb-Drug-Vitamin Interaction Guide," by George T. Grossberg and Barry Fox. Turmeric also is promoted for preventing Alzheimer's disease and for treating bloating and heartburn. More research is needed, however, before firm conclusions can be drawn about any possible cancer chemoprotective agent, according to Edwina N. Scott, lead author for a 2009 review published in Cancer Prevention Research.

Milk Thistle

Black seed oil has possible protective effects for your liver, according to the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Milk thistle also is believed to promote liver function and have liver-protecting effects. It's frequently used to treat chronic hepatitis, which is liver inflammation, as well as liver cirrhosis, according to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. While the experts at NCCAM say results from clinical trials of milk thistle have produced mixed results, Germany's Commission E, which is that country's regulatory body for herbs, has approved it for treating liver complaints.

Garlic

Garlic is approved in Germany for treating high blood pressure. Photo Credit Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images

Garlic is another herb promoted for its anti-inflammatory action, possible cancer protective properties and for its ability to lower blood pressure, all of which are uses black seed oil is marketed for. Early scientific evidence that taking garlic works to lower blood pressure -- if yours is high -- is promising, according to NCCAM. Commission E approves garlic to treat elevated blood pressure. A few studies also indicate that regularly consuming garlic can help cut your risk for cancer, but no clinical trials existed as of 2011, note the experts at NCCAM.

Considerations

Whether you are looking to boost your health, prevent cancer or treat a medical condition by including black seed oil or another dietary agent into your regimen, it's important to realize that such foods can have side effects. For example, turmeric can cause diarrhea and nausea, gallbladder contractions and increase your risk of bleeding and bruising when taken with drugs such as warfarin. Milk thistle can have estrogen-like effects, so you shouldn't use it if you have a hormone sensitive condition such as breast cancer. It also can cause allergic reactions, vomiting or nausea, anorexia and menstrual changes. It also can lower blood sugar levels. Garlic can increase the risk for hypoglycemia when taken with certain drugs, reduce the effectiveness of other drugs and worsen gastrointestinal ailments. Black seed oil, at high doses, has the potential to cause kidney or liver damage. It may interfere with radiation therapy or chemotherapy drugs and may lower your blood pressure too much if taken in combination with drugs designed for fighting high blood pressure. It also may cause contact dermatitis.

www.livestrong.com

Treatment of Materials Contaminated with Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Pcbs): Comparison of Traditional Method and Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Published Date

DOI: 10.4236/ajac.2012.312A118

Author(s)    

Dannielle Jannaine Silva, Felipe V. Pietri, José Ermirio F. Moraes, Reinaldo Camino Bazito, Camila Gambini Pereira

Affiliation(s)

Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil

Department Chemical Engineering, Federal University of S?o Paulo, S?o Paulo, Brazil

Department Chemical Engineering, Federal University of S?o Paulo, S?o Paulo, Brazil

Department of Chemistry, University of Sao Paulo, S?o Paulo, Brazil

Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to develop an experimental methodology for the extraction of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from contaminated soil and wood material using the Soxhlet extraction method and supercritical fluid technology. The sample PCB contents were quantified using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Conventional extractions of PCBs from soil samples showed higher extraction yields for samples with the highest initial PCB levels and longest extraction times. Specific PCBs yielded 74.0% - 78.3% removal using ethanol as the solvent. 91.0% - 94.3% removal of the total PCB content was achieved using hexane as the solvent. Supercritical fluid extraction of soil samples resulted in 50.0% - 70.5% removal for specific PCBs and 57.3% removal of the total PCB content. For wood, the use of Soxhlet extraction resulted in 87.0% - 94.0% removal for specific PCBs and 95.0% - 96.3% removal of the total PCB content. Supercritical fluid extraction of wood samples resulted in 91.1% - 95.0% removal of specific PCBs and 95.1 % of the total PCB content.

References

[1]	Greenpeace, Brasil, “Poluentes Organicos Persistentes: Polui??o Invisível e Global,” 2011. www.greenpeace.org.br/toxicos/pdf/poluentes.pdf
[2]	G. T. Yogui, M. C. O. Santos and R. C. Montore, “Chlorinated Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Marine Tucuxi Dolphins (Sotalia fluviatilis) from the Cananéia Estuary, Southeastern Brazil,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 312, No. 1-3, 2003, pp. 67-78. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00198-0
[3]	World Health Organization (WHO), “Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs),” 2011. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/123064/AQG2ndEd_5_10PCBs.PDF
[4]	J. C. P. Penteado and J. M. O. Vaz, “O Legado das Bifenilas Policloradas (PCBs),” Quimica Nova, Vol. 24, No. 3, 2001, pp. 390-398. doi:10.1590/S0100-40422001000300016
[5]	Agency for Toxic Substancesand DiseaseRegistry (ATS DR), “Toxicological Profile for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs),” 2000. www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp17.pdf.
[6]	N. Matsuura, T. Uchyama, H. Tada, Y. Nakamura, N. Kondo, M. Morita and M. Fukushi, “Effects of Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) on Thyroid Function in Infants born in Japan—The Second Report from Research on Environmental Health,” Chemosphere, Vol. 45, No. 8, 2001, pp. 1167-1171. doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00050-9
[7]	J. Borja, D. M. Taleon, J. Auresenia and S. Gallardo, “Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Their Biodegradation,” Process Biochemistry, Vol. 40, No. 6, 2005, pp. 1999-2013. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2004.08.006
[8]	G. Ross, “The Public Health Implications of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in the Environment,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 59, No. 3, 2004, pp. 75-291. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.06.003
[9]	http://www.tecori.com.br/legislacao/index.html
[10]	J. P. Stow, “Chemical Remediation of PCB Contaminated Soils Using Fenton’s reagent,” Ms Thesis, Royal Military College of Canada, Ontário, 1997.
[11]	C. A. B. Tooge, “Uso do Reagente de Fenton Como Oxidante Secundário em Sistemas de Destruicao de Resíduos Através de Oxidacao téRmica,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 2004.
[12]	F. Kastánek and P. Kastánek, “Combined Decontamination Processes for Wastes Containing PCBs,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 117, No. 2-3, 2005, pp. 185-205. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.09.026
[13]	D. L. Timberlake and J. R. Garbaciak, “Bench-Scale Testing of Selected Remediation Alternatives for Contaminated Sediments,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, Vol. 45, No. 1, 1995, pp. 52-56. doi:10.1080/10473289.1995.10467341
[14]	F. W. Chuang, R. A. Larson and M. S. Wessan, “Zero-Valent iron Promoted Dechlorination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 29, No. 9, 1995, pp. 2460-2463. doi:10.1021/es00009a044
[15]	M. D. Luque de Castro and L. E. García-Ayuso, “Soxhlet Extraction of Solid Materials: An Outdated Technique with a Promising Innovative Future,” Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 369, No. 1-2, 1998, pp. 1-10. doi:10.1016/S0003-2670(98)00233-5
[16]	J. R. Bowyer and J. D. Pleil, “Comparison of Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Soxhlet Extraction of Organic Compounds from Carpet Samples,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 787, No. 1-2, 1997, pp. 171-179. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(97)00624-9
[17]	M. O. Pun?n-Crespo and M. A. Lage-Yusty, “Routine Analysis of Hydrocarbons, PCB and PAH in Marine Sediments Using Supercritical CO2 Extraction,” Chemosphere, Vol. 38, No. 3, 1999, pp. 587-599. doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(98)00213-6
[18]	M. O. Pun?n Crespo and M. A. Lage Yusty, “Comparison of Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Soxhlet Extraction for the Determination of PCBs in Seaweed Samples,” Chemosphere, Vol. 59, No. 10, 2005, pp. 1407-1413. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.12.025
[19]	T. Nilsson, S. Bowadt and E. BjCorklund, “Development of a Simple Selective SFE Method for the Determination of Desorption Behaviour of PCBs in Two Swedish Sediments,” Chemosphere, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2002, pp. 469-476. doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00119-9
[20]	N. A. Policarpo. “Tratamento de Solos Contaminados Com Bifenilas Policloradas (PCBs),” Ms Thesis, Universidade de S?o Paulo, S?o Paulo, 2008.
[21]	D. J. Silva “Tratamento de Materiais Contaminados Com Bifenilas Policloradas (PCBs) via Extracao Convencional e Fluído Supercrítico,” Ms Thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, 2008.
[22]	G. Anitescu and L. L. Tavlarides, “Solubility of Individual Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Congeners in Supercritical Fluids: CO2, CO2/MeOH and CO2/n-C4H10,” The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp. 197-211. doi:10.1016/S0896-8446(98)00109-0
[23]	A. C. O. Chagas-Spinelli, “Biorremediacao de Solo Argiloso Contaminado por Hidrocarboneto Poliaromáticos Proveniente do Derrame de óleo Diesel,” Ms Thesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, 2007.
[24]	A. Kawashima, T. Miyawaki and K. Honda, “Influence of the Characteristics of Soil and fly ash on the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Dioxins,” Analytical Sciences: The International Journal of the Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 22, No. 11, 2006, pp. 1393-1397. doi:10.2116/analsci.22.1393
[25]	H. Choi and S. R. Al Abed, “PCB Congener Sorption to Carbonaceous Sediment Components: Macroscopic Comparison, Characterization of Sorption Kinetics and Mechanism,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 165, No. 1-3, 2009, pp. 860-866. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.100
[26]	E. Bjorklund, S. Bowadt, L. Mathiasson and S. B. Hawthorne, “Determining PCB Sorption/ Desorption Behavior on Sediments Using Selective Supercritical Fluid Extraction. 1. Desorption from Historically Contaminated Samples,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 33, No. 13, 1999, pp. 2193-2203. doi:10.1021/es981071p

For further details log on website :
http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=26136

Biosorption of Cu(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions Using Selected Waste Materials: Adsorption and Characterisation Studies

Published Date

DOI: 10.4236/jeas.2014.41004

Author(s)   

Wiwid Pranata Putra, Azlan Kamari, Siti Najiah Mohd Yusoff, Che Fauziah Ishak, Azmi Mohamed, Norhayati Hashim, Illyas Md Isa

Affiliation(s)

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia; Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia

Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia; Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia; Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia; Nanotechnology Research Centre, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tg. Malim, Perak, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

The efficacy of coconut tree sawdust (CTS), eggshell (ES) and sugarcane bagasse (SB) as alternative low-cost biosorbents for the removal of Cu(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) ions from aqueous solutions was investigated. Batch adsorption studies were carried out to evaluate the effects of solution pH and initial metal concentration on adsorption capacity. The optimum biosorption condition was found at pH 6.0, 0.1 g biomass dosage and at 90 min equilibrium time. The adsorption data were fitted to the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models. The adsorption capacity and affinity of CTS, ES and SB were evaluated. The Freundlich constant (n) and separation factor (R_L) values suggest that the metal ions were favourably adsorbed onto biosorbents. The maximum adsorption capacities (Q) estimated from the Langmuir isotherm model for Cu(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) were 3.89, 25.00 and 23.81 mg/g for CTS, 34.48, 90.90 and 35.71 mg/g for ES, and 3.65, 21.28 and 40.00 mg/g for SB, respectively. The characterisation studies were performed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (EDX) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR). Interaction with metal ions led to the formation of discrete aggregates on the biosorbents surface. The metal ions bound to the active sites of the biosorbents through either electrostatic attraction or complexation mechanism.

References

[1]	Pellera, F.M., Giannis, A., Kalderis, D., Anastasiadou, K., Stegmann, R., Wang, J.-Y., et al. (2011) Adsorption of Cu(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions on Biochars Prepared from Agricultural By-Products. Journal of Environmental Management, 96, 291-291.
[2]	Erto, A., Giraldo, L., Lancia, A. and Moreno-Pirajan, J.C. (2013) A Comparison between a Low-Cost Sorbent and an Activated Carbon for the Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Water. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 224, 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-013-1531-3
[3]	Ibrahim, M.N., Wan Ngah, W.S., Norliyana, M.S., Daud, W.R., Rafatullah, M., Sulaiman, O., et al. (2010) A Novel Agricultural Waste Adsorbent for the Removal of Lead(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 182, 377-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.06.044
[4]	Owamah, H.I. (2013) Biosorptive Removal of Pb(II) and Cu(II) from Wastewater Using Activated Carbon from Cassava peels. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 1-12.
[5]	Al-Haidary, A.M.A., Zanganah, F.H.H., Al-Azawi, S.R.F., Khalili, F.I. and Al-Dujaili, A.H. (2011) A Study on Using Date Palm Fibers and Leaf Base of Palm as Adsorbents for Pb(II) Ions from Its Aqueous Solution. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 214, 73-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0405-1
[6]	Depci, T., Kul, A.R. and Onal, Y. (2012) Competitive Adsorption of Lead and Zinc from Aqueous Solution on Activated Carbon Prepared from Van Apple Pulp: Study in Single-and Multi-Solute Systems. Chemical Engineering Journal, 200-202, 224-246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.06.077
[7]	Fu, F. and Wang, Q. (2011) Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Wastewaters: A Review. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 407-418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.011
[8]	Hameed, B.H., Din, A.T.M. and Ahmad, A.L. (2007) Adsorption of Methylene Blue onto Bamboo-Based Activated Carbon: Kinetics and Equilibrium Studies. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 141, 819-825. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.049
[9]	Yao, Z.Y., Qi, J.H. and Wang, L.H. (2010) Equilibrium, Kinetic, and Thermodynamic Studies on the Biosorption of Cu(II) onto Chestnut Shell. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 174, 137-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.027
[10]	Utomo, H.D. and Hunter, K.A. (2006) Adsorption of Divalent Copper, Zinc, Cadmium and Lead Ions from Aqueous Solution by Waste Tea and Coffee Adsorbents. Environmental Technology, 27, 25-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593332708618619
[11]	Amarasinghe, B.M.W.P.K. and Williams, R.A. (2007) Tea Waste as a Low Cost Adsorbent for the Removal of Cu and Pb from Wastewater. Chemical Engineering Journal, 132, 299-309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.01.016
[12]	Akkaya, G. and Guzel, F. (2013) Bioremoval and Recovery of Cu(II) and Pb(II) from Aqueous Solution by a Novel Biosorbent Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Seed Hulls: Kinetic Study, Equilibrium Isotherm, SEM and FTIR Analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 51, 7311-7322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.815685
[13]	Duan, C., Zhao, N., Yu, X., Zhang, X. and Xu, J. (2013) Chemically Modified Kapok Fiber for Fast Adsorption of Pb2+, Cd2+, Cu2+ from Aqueous Solution. Cellulose, 20, 849-860. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-9875-9
[14]	Andrabi, S.M. (2010) Sawdust of Lam Tree (Cordia africana) as a Low-Cost, Sustainable and Easily Available Adsorbent for the Removal of Toxic Metals Like Pb(II) and Ni(II) from Aqueous Solution. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 69, 75-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00107-009-0398-x
[15]	Makeswari, M. and Santhi, T. (2013) Use of Ricinus Communis Leaves as a Low-Cost Adsorbent for Removal of Cu(II) Ions from Aqueous Solution. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 1-21.
[16]	Shukla, P.M. and Shukla, S.R. (2013) Biosorption of Cu(II), Pb(II), Ni(II), and Fe(II) on Alkali Treated Coir Fibers. Separation Science and Technology, 48, 421-428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2012.691933
[17]	Singha, B. and Das, S.K. (2013) Adsorptive Removal of Cu(II) from Aqueous Solution and Industrial Effluent Using Natural/Agricultural Wastes. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 107, 97-106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.01.060
[18]	Choi, W., Chung, S.G., Hong, S.W., Kim, D.J. and Lee, S.H. (2011) Development of an Environmentally Friendly Adsorbent for the Removal of Toxic Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solution. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223, 1837-1846. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0988-1
[19]	Schaafsma, A., Pakan, I., Hofstede, G.J., Muskiet, F.A., Van Der Veer, E. and De Vries, P.J. (2000) Mineral, Amino Acid, and Hormonal Composition of Chicken Eggshell Powder and the Evaluation of Its Use in Human Nutrition. Poultry Science, 79, 1833-1838. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ps/79.12.1833
[20]	Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H. and Teller, E. (1938) Adsorption of Gases in Multimolecular Layers. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 60, 309-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja01269a023
[21]	Barrett, E.P., Joyner, L.G. and Halenda, P.P. (1951) The Determination of Pore Volume and Area Distributions in Porous Substances. I. Computations from Nitrogen Isotherms. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 73, 373-380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja01145a126
[22]	Rafatullah, M., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R. and Ahmad, A. (2010) Adsorption of Copper(II) onto Different Adsorbents. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 31, 918-930. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01932690903224003
[23]	Mahmoud, G.A. (2013) Adsorption of Copper(II), Lead(II), and Cadmium(II) Ions from Aqueous Solution by Using Hydrogel with Magnetic Properties. Monatshefte for Chemie-Chemical Monthly, 1-10.
[24]	Chen, G., Fan, J., Liu, R., Zeng, G., Chen, A. and Zou, Z. (2012) Removal of Cd(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) from Aqueous Solutions by Live Phanerochaete Chrysosporium. Environmental Technology, 33, 2653-2659. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.673015
[25]	Al-Jariri, J.S. and Khalili, F. (2012) Adsorption of Zn(II), Pb(II), Cr(III) and Mn(II) from Water by Jordanian Bentonite. Desalination and Water Treatment, 21, 308-322. http://dx.doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1623
[26]	Boota, R., Bhatti, H.N. and Hanif, M.A. (2009) Removal of Cu(II) and Zn(II) Using Lignocellulosic Fiber Derived from Citrus Reticulata (Kinnow) Waste Biomass. Separation Science and Technology, 44, 4000-4022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01496390903183196
[27]	Reddy, D., Seshaiah, K., Reddy, A.V.R. and Lee, S.M. (2010) Optimization of Cd(II), Cu(II) and Ni(II) Biosorption by Chemically Modified Moringa oleifera Leaves Powder. Carbohydrate Polymers, 88, 1077-1086. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.073
[28]	Wang, L., Chen, Z., Yang, J. and Ma, F. (2013) Pb(II) Biosorption by Compound Bioflocculant: Performance and Mechanism. Desalination and Water Treatment, 1-9.
[29]	Freundlich, H.M.F. (1906) Uber Die Adsorption in Lasungen. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 57, 385-370.
[30]	Langmuir, I. (1916) The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids. Part I. Solids. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 38, 2221-2295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja02268a002
[31]	Lezcano, J.M., Gonzalez, F., Ballester, A., Blazquez, M.L., Munoz, J.A. and Garcia-Balboa, C. (2010) Biosorption of Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) Using Different Residual Biomass. Chemistry and Ecology, 26, 1-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757540903468102
[32]	Hall, K.R., Eagleton, L.C., Acrivos, A. and Vermeulen, T. (1966) Pore- and Solid-Diffusion Kinetics in Fixed-Bed Adsorption under Constant-Pattern Conditions. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Fundamentals, 5, 212-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/i160018a011
[33]	Kubilay, A., Garkan, R., Savran, A. and Azahan, T. (2007) Removal of Cu(II), Zn(II) and Co(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption onto Natural Bentonite. Adsorption, 13, 41-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10450-007-9003-y
[34]	El-Ashtoukhy, E.S., Amin, N.K. and Abdelwahab, O. (2008) Removal of Lead(II) and Copper(II) from Aqueous Solution Using Pomegranate Peel as a New Adsorbent. Desalination, 223, 162-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.206
[35]	Elham, A., Hossein, T. and Mahnoosh, H. (2010) Removal of Zn(II) and Pb(II) Ions Using Rice Husk in Food Industrial Wastewater. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 14, 159-162.
[36]	Ramana, D.K.V., Jamuna, K., Satyanarayana, B., Venkateswarlu, B., Rao, M.M. and Sehaih, K. (2010) Removal of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions Using Activated Carbon Prepared from Cicer arietinum. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 92, 1447-1460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772241003614312
[37]	Sekomo, C.B., Rousseau, D.P.L. and Lens, P.N.L. (2012) Use of Gisenyi Volcanic Rock for Adsorptive Removal of Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) from Wastewater. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223, 533-547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0880-z
[38]	Cao, X., Ma, L.Q., Rhue, D.R. and Appel, C.S. (2004) Mechanisms of Lead, Copper, and Zinc Retention by Phosphate Rock. Environmental Pollution, 131, 435-444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.03.003
[39]	Sciban, M. and Klasnja, M. (2004) Wood Sawdust and Wood Originate Materials as Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Ions. Holz als Roh-und Werkstoff, 62, 69-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00107-003-0449-7
[40]	Shukla, S.R. and Pai, R.S. (2005) Adsorption of Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) on Dye Loaded Groundnut Shells and Sawdust. Separation and Purification Technology, 43, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2004.09.003
[41]	Shukla, S.R. and Pai, R.S. (2005) Adsorption of Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) on Modified Jute Fibres. Bioresource Technology, 96, 1430-1438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.12.010
[42]	Grassi, D.A., Galicio, M. and Fernandez Cirelli, A. (2011) A Homogeneous and Low-Cost Biosorbent for Cd, Pb and Cu Removal from Aqueous Effluents. Chemistry and Ecology, 27, 297-309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2011.565750
[43]	Paulino, A.L.G., Cunha, A.J.D., Alfaya, R.V.D.S. and Alfaya, A.A.D.S. (2013) Chemically Modified Natural Cotton Fiber: A Low-Cost Biosorbent for the Removal of the Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II) from Natural Water. Desalination and Water Treatment, 1-11.
[44]	Fraile, A., Penche, S., Gonzalez, F., Blazquez, M.L., Munoz, J.A. and Ballester, A. (2005) Biosorption of Copper, Zinc, Cadmium and Nickel by Chlorella vulgaris. Chemistry and Ecology, 21, 61-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757540512331334933
[45]	Williams, D.H. and Fleming, I. (1995) Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry. 5th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, London.
[46]	Vagenas, N.V., Gatsouli, A. and Kontoyannis, C.G. (2003) Quantitative Analysis of Synthetic Calcium Carbonate Polymorphs Using FT-IR Spectroscopy. Talanta, 59, 831-836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00638-0
[47]	Rehman, I. and Bonfield, W. (1997) Characterization of Hydroxyapatite and Carbonated Apatite by Photo Acoustic FTIR Spectroscopy. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 8, 1-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018570213546

For further details log on website :
http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=43532

How to Get Rid of Large Pores and Oily Skin

Large pores can be unsightly. Photo Credit deniskomarov/iStock/Getty Images

Your face is covered with innumerable tiny holes called pores, which secrete the natural oils that keep your skin looking supple and healthy. However, when the pores begin producing excess oils, or sebum, they can become clogged, leading to acne breakouts. Some pores on the nose, cheeks and forehead become noticeably enlarged, and when they become clogged with excess sebum, the results are large whiteheads, blackheads or pimples. Help put an end to embarrassing acne breakouts by shrinking your pores and controlling your oily skin at home.

Step 1

Wash your face twice daily, once in the morning and again before bed, with a mild, soap-free cleanser. Avoid vigorously scrubbing your face, recommends KidsHealth, as this could irritate your skin and make your acne even worse.

Step 2

Work a cotton ball soaked with astringent or toner over any areas of your face where excess oil or large pores occur such as your chin, nose and forehead. The astringent helps to reduce the amount of oil on your face while shrinking your pores.

Step 3

Apply a moisturizing lotion to your clean skin. Choose an oil-free product that is labeled "noncomedogenic" or "nonacnegenic," recommends KidsHealth.

Step 4

Apply a clay mask to your face at least once weekly. Clay masks gently eliminate the excess oil from your skin while reducing the size of your pores, notes dermatologist Noelle Sherber, a contributor to "Teen Vogue." Allow the clay mask to remain on your skin according to the package directions, or for 10 to 15 minutes, then rinse it away with lukewarm water.

Step 5

Press a cosmetic blotting paper on any areas of your face where you notice large pores or shine associated with excess oil. Blotting papers -- available in pharmacies and beauty supply stores -- work by soaking up excess oils.

Step 6

Speak to a dermatologist about prescriptions and treatments available for treatment of excessively oil skin or to reduce the appearance of large pores. Crutchfield Dermatology notes that several prescription topical creams are available -- including products containing tazarotene and Accutane -- that will shrink pores and reduce the amount of excess sebum on your face.

Things You'll Need

• Mild, soap-free cleanser
• Cotton ball
• Astringent
• Toner
• Oil-free moisturizing lotion
• Clay mask
• Blotting paper

www.livestrong.com