SEED DISPERSAL SYNDROME

A seed dispersal syndrome is a mutualistic plant-animal interaction. Seed dispersals syndromes are morphological characters of seeds correlated to particular seed dispersal agents. Dispersal is the event by which individuals move from the site of their parents to establish in a new area. A seed disperser is the vector by which a seed moves from its parent to the resting place where the individual will establish, for instance an animal. Similar to the term syndrome, a diaspore. Is a morphological functional unit of a seed for dispersal purposes.

Characteristics for seed dispersal syndromes are commonly fruit colour, mass, and persistence. These syndrome characteristics are often associated with the fruit that carries the seeds. Fruits are packages for seeds, composed of nutritious tissues to feed animals. However, fruit pulp is not commonly used as a seed dispersal syndrome because pulp nutritional value does not enhance seed dispersal success. Animals interact with these fruits because they are a common food source for them. Although, not all seed dispersal syndromes have fruits because not all seeds are dispersed by animals. Suitable biological and environmental conditions of dispersal syndromes are needed for seed dispersal and invasion success such as temperature and moisture.

Seed dispersal syndromes are parallel to pollination syndromes, which are defined as floral characteristics that attract organisms as pollinators. They are considered parallels because they are both plant-animal interactions, which increase the reproductive success of a plant. However, seed dispersal syndromes are more common in gymnosperms, while pollination syndromes are found in angiosperms. Seeds disperse to increase the reproductive success of the plant. The farther away a seed is from a parent, the better its chances of survival and germination. Therefore, a plant should select certain traits to increase dispersal by a vector (i.e. bird) to increase the reproductive success of the plant.

Evolution

Seeds have evolved traits to reward animals to enhance their dispersal abilities. Differing foraging behaviours of animals can lead to selection of dispersal traits and spatial variation such as increase in seed size for mammal dispersal, which can limit seed production. Seed production is limited by some seed syndromes because of their cost to the plant. Therefore, seed dispersal syndromes will evolve in a plant when the trait benefit outweighs the cost. The seed dispersers themselves play an essential role in syndrome evolution. For example, birds put strong selection pressure on seeds for colour of fruits because of their enhanced vision. Illustrations of such colour evolution include green colour being produced because its photosynthesis abilities are less costly, while red colour emerges as a byproduct for protection from arthropods.

For visible characteristic differences to develop between dispersers and non-dispersers a few conditions need to be met 1. Specialization must increase dispersal success whether morphological, physiological or behavioural 2. Energy investment for dispersal will be taken from energy investment of other traits 3. Dispersal traits will benefit the dispersers over non-dispersers. Phenotypic (visible characteristics) differences in non-dispersers and dispersers can be caused by external factors, kin competition, intraspecific competition and habitat quality.

History

In 1930, Ridley wrote an important book called The dispersal of plants throughout the world, which goes into detail about each form of dispersal; dispersal by wind, water, animals, birds, reptiles and fish, adhesion and people. He details the morphology and traits for each dispersal method, which are later described as seed dispersal syndromes. This began the idea of seed trait selection being associated with a form of seed dispersal. Then in 1969 van der Pijl identified seed dispersal syndromes based on each mechanism of seed dispersal in his book Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants. He is the pinnacle of seed dispersal syndromes and is cited by many scientists who study seed dispersal syndromes. He describes the morphology of interactions between fruits and flowers and classifies dispersal in invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, mammals, ants, wind, water and the plant itself. Janson in 1983 continued the study on seed dispersal syndromes and classified seed dispersal syndromes of fruit by size, colour and husk or no husks in species of Peruvian tropical forest. He went in depth about the interaction between plants that have adapted to seed dispersal by birds and mammals. Willson, Irvine & Walsh in 1989 added more factors to the study of seed dispersal syndromes and looked at differing fleshy fruits and their correlation to moisture and differing ecological factors. They looked at bird-dispersal and mammal-dispersal and how the fruits differed in dispersal syndromes such as colour and size. These scientists began the theory and ideas behind seed dispersal syndromes that are crucial to the evolution of reproduction in plants.

Types and Functions

Dispersal syndromes have been previously classified by: size, colour, weight, protection, flesh type, number of seeds, weight and start time of ripening.,Syndromes are often associated with the type of dispersal and morphology. Also chemical composition can influence the disperser’s fruit choice. The following are types of seed dispersal and their syndromes.

Anemochory

Example of a syndrome of anemochory.

Anemochory is defined as seed dispersal by wind. Common dispersal syndromes of anemochory are wing structures and brown or dull coloured seeds without further rewards. Van der Pijl named seeds for anemochory flyers, rollers, or throwers to represent the seed dispersal syndromes and their behaviour. Flyers are typically categorized as dust diaspores, balloons, plumed or winged. Dust diaspores are small flat structures on seeds that appear to be the transition to wing diaspores, balloons are inflated seed characteristics and plumes are hairs or elongation seed characteristics. Wings have evolved to increase dispersal distance to promote gene flow. Anemochory is commonly found in open habitats, canopy trees, and dry season deciduous forests. Wind dispersers mature in the dry season for optimum high long-distance dispersal to increase success of germination.

Barochory

Barochory is seed dispersal by gravity alone in which a plant's seeds fall beneath the parent plant. These seeds commonly have heavy seed dispersal syndromes. However, heavy seeds may not be a form of seed dispersal syndrome, but a random seed characteristic that has no dispersal purpose. It has been thought that barochory does not develop a seed dispersal syndrome because it does not select for characters to enhance dispersal. It is questionable whether barochory is dispersal at all.

Hydrochory

Hydrochory is seed dispersal by water. Seeds can disperse by rain or ice or be submerged in water. Seeds dispersed by water need to have the ability to float and resist water damage. They often have hairs to assist with enlargement and floating. More features that cause floating are air space, lightweight tissues and corky tissues. Hydrochory syndromes are most common in aquatic plants.

Zoochory

Zoochory is the dispersal of seeds by animals and can be further divided into three classes.

1. Endozoochory is seed dispersal inside animals,
2. Synzoochory is dispersal of diaspores by the mouthparts of animals, and
3. Epizoochory is the accidental dispersal by animals. Differing characteristics of zoochory syndromes include coloured fruits, scented fruits, and different textures for different animals. Endozoochory syndrome characteristics will develop based on palatability of the fruit by an organism. For example, mammals are attracted to scent of a seed and birds are attracted to colour. Endozoochory syndromes have evolved to be ingested by animals and later bypassed in a new environment so the seed can germinate. Synzoochory should possess hard skins to protect seeds from damage of mouthparts; for example, sharp beaks on animals such as birds or turtles. Epizoochory commonly has burrs or spines to transport seeds on the outside of animals. These syndromes are highly associated with animals that have fur, while burrs would be lacking on seeds that are dispersed by reptiles because of their smooth skin. It is believed that not all animals that interact with plant fruits are dispersers because some animals do not increase the successful dispersal of seeds but consume and destroy them. Therefore, some animals are dispersers and some are consumers.

Mammalochory

Mammalochory is specifically the seed dispersal by mammals. The dispersal syndromes for mammalochory include large fleshy fruit, green or dull coloured fruits, and husked or unhusked. The seeds tend to have more protection to prevent mechanical destruction. Mammals rely on smell more than vision for foraging, which causes the seeds they disperse to be more scented compared to bird-dispersed seeds. Animal-dispersed seeds ripen in rainy season when foraging activity is high, resulting in fleshy diaspores. Mammals consume fruits whole or in smaller pieces, which explains the larger seed syndromes. Mammalochory syndromes can increase the reproductive success of the plant compared to seed dispersal syndromes of a plant associated with barochory for example. An example of seed dispersal syndromes associated with mammals that increases reproductive success would be seed-consuming rodents that increase germination by burial of seeds.

Ornithochory

Ornithochory is seed dispersal by birds. Common syndrome characteristics include small fleshy fruits with bright colours and without husks. Ornithochory is common in temperate zones and oceanic islands because of absence of native mammals. Birds have heightened colour vision and swallow seeds and fruits whole, explaining the small and coloured characteristics of dispersal syndromes. Birds have a weak sense of smell, therefore ornithochory syndromes would specialize more in colour than scent, in comparison to mammalochory. Ornithochory can increase the reproductive success of a plant because a bird’s digestive tract increases seed germination after it has been bypassed and dispersed by the bird.

Myrmecochory

Myrmecochory is seed dispersal by ants. Myrmecochory is considered an ant-plant mutualistic relationship. The common syndrome traits for myrmecochory are elaisomes, and are often hard and difficult to damage. Elaisomes are structures that attract ants because they are high in lipid content, providing important nutrients for the ant. Without ants, seed dispersal becomes barochory and dispersal success declines. It is debated if ants are good dispersers and if plants would select for ant dispersal. Ants do clearly interact with seeds, however ants cannot travel very long distances. Therefore, would a plant select for an ant over a bird when birds can disperse seeds much farther than ants, increasing a plant's reproductive success.

Problems in Seed Dispersal Syndromes

Many scientists are skeptical whether seed dispersal syndromes actually exist because their parallel, pollination syndromes, are often disputed in scientific literature. Seed dispersal syndromes do not have much disagreement among scientists. Whether this is due to lack of research or interest in seed dispersal syndromes, or that scientists agree with the idea of seed dispersal syndromes. It also may be that seed dispersal syndromes are harder to test because once seeds disperse they are difficult to collect and study. Jordano (1995) states that the evolution of fruit traits for seed dispersal success is only dependent on diameter. This is one scientist’s perspective but does not appear to be the common consensus among scientists. Colour and olfaction are other common seed dispersal syndromes tested and discussed in scientific literature. One limitation to seed dispersal syndromes mentioned is the limited definitions of syndrome characteristics such as odour or texture. It is possible that there has not been enough research to test these characteristics or they do not play a role in seed dispersal syndromes.

The differences in seed dispersal syndromes appear to be weak, but do exist. There needs to be consideration for the possibility that these syndromes evolved not to benefit seed dispersal but possibility to combat other selective pressures. For example, syndromes may have developed to combat predation or environmental hazards. Predation could produce a secondary metabolite syndrome. Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not used for the primary function of a plant and are normally used as defense mechanisms.

Further Research

Seed dispersal syndromes have not been studied in complete breadth for every seed dispersal method. Therefore, further research should be conducted to fill the gaps of knowledge about dispersal syndromes. The following are problems areas or directions research can continue on the study of seed dispersal syndromes. There is a lack of understanding of morphology in correlation to behavioural traits of dispersers. Research in this area would assist in the understanding of why particular dispersers are selected by plants to enhance reproductive success. Also, understanding movement strategies of factors affecting departure to settlement is important in determining whether seed dispersal syndromes are only affect by plant selection for a disperser. There are few studies concerning phenotype-dependent dispersal and how it affects spatial structures of populations. Distance of dispersal is not researched in enough detail to correlate to a seed dispersal syndrome. More experimental field studies on plant-animal interactions regarding seed dispersal need to be conducted for a thorough understanding of seed dispersal syndromes. There is limited knowledge about the presence of elaisomes and ant behaviour affecting seed dispersal, and how ant-plant interactions evolved under various plant traits. Understanding these interactions would help clarify if myrmecochory did evolve seed dispersal syndromes. Micro and macroevolutionary processes are needed to determine the effects of biological dispersal of seeds. There cannot be inferences about seed dispersal syndromes without robust phylogenies and evolutionary studies. There is also a gap in the understanding of genetic consequences of zoochory. Using genetics could help clarify if these syndromes were formed at random or if they correspond to evolution of seed dispersal. It is unclear if these seed dispersal syndromes evolved for specialization between plants and animals to increase seed dispersal success or if these syndromes are simply formed from generalist plant-animal interactions. Understanding these relationships would clarify the confusion about seed dispersal syndromes and if they are true examples of evolution increasing plant reproductive success or if they have developed without selective pressures.

References

1. ^ Herrera, C. M. & Pellmyr, O. (2002). Plant Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach. USA: Blackwell Science Ltd
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Clobert, J., Le Galliard, J.F., Cote, J., Meylan, S. & Massot, M. (2009). Informed dispersal, heterogeneity in animal dispersal syndromes and the dynamics of spatially structured populations. Ecology Letters, 12, 197-209.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Griz, L.M.S. & Machado, I.C.S. (2001). Fruiting phenology and seed dispersal syndromes in caatinga, a tropical dry forest in the northeast of Brazil. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 17, 303-321.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} Link, A. & Stevenson, P.R. (2004). Fruit dispersal syndromes in animal disseminated plants at Tinigua National Park, Colombia. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 77, 319-334.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Tamboia, T., Cipollini, M.L. & Levey, D.J. (1996). An Evaluation of Vertebrates Seed Dispersal Syndromes in Four Species of Black Nightshade. Oecologia, 107(4), 522-532.
6. ^ ^a b c d Herrera, C. M. & Pellmyr, O. (2002).Plant Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach. USA: Blackwell Science Ltd
7. ^ Booth, D. T. (1990). Plant diaspore functions. Journal of Seed Technology, 14(1), 61-73.
8. ^ Fenster, C. B., Armbruster, W. S., Wilson, P., Dudash, M. R. & Thomson, J. D. (2004). Pollination Syndromes and Floral Specialization. Annual Reviews of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 35, 375-403.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Castro, S., Ferrero, V., Loureiro, J., Espadaler, X., Silveira, P. & Navarro, L. (2010). Dispersal mechanisms of the narrow endemic Polygala vayredae: dispersal syndromes and spatio-temporal variations in ant dispersal assemblages. Plant Ecology, 207, 359-372.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Fischer, K.E. & Chapman, C.A. (1993). Frugivores and Fruit Syndromes: Differences in Patterns at the Genus and Species Level. Oikos, 66(3), 472-482.

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Does Yogurt Help With Weight Loss?

Yogurt is often touted as one of the most nutritious foods around, and millions of Americans enjoy yogurt as a calcium-rich snack. But yogurt does more than just strengthen your bones; research is finding that it can actually aid in weight loss. Yogurt’s unique nutritional profile may have the power to help you burn fat, protect your metabolism and maintain your muscle strength when eaten as part of a healthy diet.

Yogurt may help you lose weight. Photo Credit Ls9907/iStock/Getty Images

Calcium

According to research conducted at the University of Knoxville and cited in the Huffington Post, foods rich in calcium can increase your body’s breakdown of fat and help preserve your metabolism when you’re on a diet. Calcium is particularly effective at reducing fat around your midsection; a 2004 study by M. B. Zemel and colleagues presented in "Obesity Research" shows that participants who ate enough dairy to provide 1100 mg of daily calcium lost more weight overall and more weight around their midsections than those who ate a low-calcium diet or a diet that included 1200 mg of calcium from supplements.

Yogurt

While dairy foods as a whole have been studied for their role in weight loss, yogurt in particular has been shown to help burn fat and reduce weight overall. The Huffington Post cites a University of Tennessee study in which participants who ate three daily servings of yogurt lost 22 percent more weight and 61 percent more body fat than dieters who didn’t add calcium to their diet. The yogurt eaters also maintained their lean muscle tissue, which is important for preventing a decrease in metabolism.

Protein

Yogurt is rich in protein and it’s this protein that can help you feel fuller and more satisfied than you would eating a fat- or carbohydrate-rich meal with the same number of calories; according to Arne Astrup in the July 2005 edition of "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition," protein is more satiating than both fat and carbs. Eating yogurt as a snack or adding it to your breakfast or lunch may help you to eat fewer calories overall by keeping you fuller throughout the day and helping you last longer between meals.

Calories

Yogurt can also help you cut calories when you use it to replace higher-calorie foods. Plain yogurt, especially the thick Greek-style, has a tart flavor that makes a convincing substitute for sour cream; try reduced-fat plain Greek yogurt in any recipe that calls for sour cream, mix it with pureed beans and Mexican spices for a healthier chip dip or simply use it to top tacos and baked potatoes. Greek yogurt can also be used in place of mayonnaise to make tuna salad, coleslaw and salad dressing. If your taste buds don't like the yogurt substitution, start by replacing just half the sour cream or mayo with yogurt and increase the ratio as you get used to the flavor.

Types

When it comes to weight loss, not all types of yogurt are created equal. Full-fat yogurts can be packed with calories, so choose nonfat or reduced-fat versions, which have just as much protein and calcium as the full-fat types. Flavored yogurts usually have more calories and sugar than plain, so add healthy flavor to plain yogurt at home by mixing in fruit or a teaspoon of honey. For the greatest protein benefits, eat Greek-style yogurt, which has more protein than regular yogurt and is thicker and creamier, even in the nonfat version.

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List of Whole-Grain Foods for a High-Fiber, Low-Glycemic Diet

Overview

Carbohydrates are an important source of energy in the diet. One way to choose carbohydrates is to look for whole grains that are high in fiber and have a low glycemic index. Whole grains provide more nutrition than refined grains. The Harvard School of Public Health reminds us that fiber can help prevent heart disease, diabetes and constipation. Low glycemic index (GI) foods do not cause a high elevation in blood sugar, which is especially important for people who have diabetes or insulin sensitivity issues. A GI of 40 to 55 is generally considered low.

A woman is eating a healthy breakfast. Photo Credit puhhha/iStock/Getty Images

Wheat

Choose products made with 100 percent whole wheat. Bread made with 100 percent whole wheat is a good choice because it is both filling and high in fiber. Pumpernickel bread is also a good choice, with a GI of 40. Whole-wheat pasta cooked al dente has a GI of 35, but cooking the pasta until tender raises the GI to 50. Bran cereals are high in fiber and have a low GI unless they have added sugars.

Rice

Choose brown and wild rice for higher fiber with a low GI content. White rice is lower in fiber and has a higher GI. As a general guideline, the University of California, San Diego says the more sticky the rice, the higher the GI content.

Other Grains

Oats are high in fiber; choose oats that have been minimally processed, such as steel-cut oats, for a lower GI. Oat bran is also added to breads to increase their fiber content. Choose pearl barley, a whole grain with a GI of 25, over rolled barley. Bulgur is high in fiber and has a low GI.

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Diets for Blood Type AB Positive

Overview

Many health professionals believe that an individual's blood type within the A-B-O cell-surface-antigen classification system dictates her ideal dietary regimen. Type AB is very rare, with fewer than 5 percent of people possessing it; it is the only "derivative" blood type and results from a commingling of A and B. Types AB+ and AB- are not believed to differ in the realm of nutritional requirements, says Dr. Peter J. D'Adamo in his book "Eat Right 4 Your Type: The Individualized Diet Solution to Staying Healthy, Living Longer & Achieving Your Ideal Weight."

A man is weighing his fresh produce at the grocery store. Photo Credit Noel Hendrickson/Digital Vision/Getty Images

Pseudo-Vegetarian Diet

Type AB people should consume diets consisting primarily of fruits and vegetables of all kinds. Breaking down meat requires a significant amount of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Although type A people are genetically prone to low stomach acid and type B people readily tolerate meat, the combination of A and B results in individuals heavily slanted toward A in this respect.

As a result, ABs should limit their meat intake, with tofu being a solid substitute. In addition, chicken contains significant amounts of a substance called lectin, which tends to irritate the digestive tracts of ABs for different reasons. Type AB people can increase stomach acid levels by taking the amino acid L-histidine and bitter herbs and avoiding carbonated beverages.

High-Activity, Low-Chemical Diet

Type ABs resemble Type O people in terms of their stress-hormone profile. They possess a propensity to overproduce catecholamines known as adrenaline. Accordingly, ABs are advised to get plenty of intense exercise in order to maintain manageable baseline stress levels, with aerobic exercise preferred over modalities such as yoga and tai chi.

To fuel this exercise requirement, AB types should eat plenty of fructose- and starch-rich foods of the sort they thrive on, particularly grains, with rice preferable to pasta. As an additional consequence of a propensity for stressful states, they should avoid consuming foods containing substances that generate physical or psychological stress reactions through the increased release of adrenalin, such as alcohol and caffeine.

Finally, type ABs tolerate dairy products well, and the more a person exercises, the higher his or her protein requirements, so milk is a sufficient source. Starting the day with a glass of warm water can help allay mucus accumulation resulting from dairy foods.

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OCEANIC DISPERSAL

Oceanic dispersal is a type of biological dispersal that occurs when organisms transfer from one land mass to another by way of a sea crossing. Often this occurs via large rafts of floating vegetation such as are sometimes seen floating down major rivers in the tropics and washing out to sea, occasionally with animals trapped on them. Dispersal via such a raft is sometimes referred to as a "rafting event."

Colonization of land masses by plants can also occur via long-distance oceanic dispersal of floating seeds.

History

Rafting has played an important role in the colonization by mammals of isolated land masses, such as Madagascar, which has been isolated for ~120 million years (Ma), and South America, which was isolated for much of the Cenozoic. Both land masses, for example, appear to have received their primates by this mechanism. According to genetic evidence, the common ancestor of the lemurs of Madagascar appears to have crossed the Mozambique Channel by rafting between 50 and 60 Ma ago. Likewise, the New World monkeys are thought to have originated in Africa and rafted to South America by the Oligocene, when the continents were much closer than they are today. Madagascar also appears to have received its tenrecs (25–42 Ma ago), nesomyid rodents (20–24 Ma ago) and euplerid carnivorans (19–26 Ma ago) by this route and South America its caviomorph rodents (over 30 Ma ago). Simian primates (ancestral to monkeys) and hystricognath rodents (ancestral to caviomorphs) are believed to have similarly dispersed from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago.

Among reptiles, several iguanid species in the South Pacific have been hypothesized to be descended from iguanas that rafted 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from Central or South America (an alternative theory involves dispersal of a putative now-extinct iguana lineage from Australia or Asia). Similarly, a number of clades of American geckos seem to have rafted over from Africa during both the Paleogene and Neogene. Skinks of the related genera Mabuya and Trachylepis also apparently both floated across the Atlantic from Africa to South America and Fernando de Noronha, respectively, during the last 9 Ma. Skinks from the same group have also rafted from Africa to Cape Verde, Madagascar, the Seychelles,  the Comoros and Socotra), (Among lizards, skinks and geckos seem especially capable of surviving long transoceanic journeys.) Surprisingly, even burrowing amphisbaenians and blind snakes  appear to have rafted from Africa to South America.

An example of a bird that is thought to have reached its present location by rafting is the weak-flying South American hoatzin, whose ancestors apparently floated over from Africa.

Colonization of groups of islands can occur by an iterative rafting process sometimes called island hopping. Such a process appears to have played a role, for example, in the colonization of the Caribbean by mammals of South American origin (including caviomorphs and monkeys).

However, oceanic dispersal of terrestrial species may not always take the form of rafting; in some cases, swimming or simply floating may suffice. Tortoises of the genus Chelonoidis arrived in South America from Africa in the Oligocene; they were probably aided by their ability to float with their heads up, and to survive up to six months without food or fresh water. South American tortoises then went on to colonize the West Indies and Galápagos Islands. The dispersal of anthracotheres from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago, and the much more recent dispersal of hippos (descendants of anthracotheres) from Africa to Madagascar may have occurred by floating or swimming.

References

1. ^ Mittermeier, R.A ; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar (2nd ed.). Conservation International. pp. 24–26. ISBN 1-881173-88-7.
2. ^ Won, H., and S. S. Renner. 2006. Dating dispersal and radiation in the gymnosperm Gnetum (Gnetales) – clock calibration when outgroup relationships are uncertain. Systematic Biology 55(4): 610-622. doi:10.1080/10635150600812619.
3. ^ Roos, Christian; Schmitz, Jürgen; Zischler, Hans (July 2004). "Primate jumping genes elucidate strepsirrhine phylogeny",  (PDF). PNAS 101 (29): 10650–10654, Bibcode:2004PNAS..10110650R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403852101. PMC 489989. PMID 15249661.
4. ^ ^a b Sellers, Bill (2000-10-20). "Primate Evolution" (PDF). University of Edinburgh. pp. 13–17. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
5. ^ ^a b c Ali, J. R.; Huber, M. (2010-01-20). "Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents". Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 463 (4 Feb. 2010): 653–656. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..653A. doi:10.1038/nature08706 PMID 20090678. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
6. ^ Flynn, J. J.; Wyss, A. R. (1998). "Recent advances in South American mammalian paleontology". Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13 (11): 449–454. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01457-8.  PMID 21238387.
7. ^ Flynn, John J.; Wyss, André R.; Charrier, Reynaldo (2007). "South America's Missing Mammals". Scientific American (May): 68–75.
8. ^ ^a b Chaimanee, Y.; Chavasseau, O.; Beard, K. C.; Kyaw, A. A.; Soe, A. N.; Sein, C.; Lazzari, V.; Marivaux, L.; Marandat, B.; Swe, M.; Rugbumrung, M.; Lwin, T.; Valentin, X.; Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein; Jaeger, J. -J. (2012). "Late Middle Eocene primate from Myanmar and the initial anthropoid colonization of Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (26): 10293. doi:10.1073/pnas.1200644109.
9. ^ Gibbons, J. R. H. (Jul 31, 1981). "The Biogeography of Brachylophus (Iguanidae) including the Description of a New Species, B. vitiensis, from Fiji". Journal of Herpetology(Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles) 15 (3): 255–273. doi:10.2307/1563429. JSTOR 1563429.
10. ^ Noonan, B.P.; Sites, J. W., Jr. (2009-11-24). "Tracing the origins of iguanid lizards and boine snakes of the Pacific". The American Naturalist (University of Chicago Press) 175 (1): 61–72. doi:10.1086/648607. PMID 19929634.

Further Reading

• de Queiroz, A. (2014-01-01). "Evolution’s Stowaways". The Scientist. LabX Media Group. Retrieved 2014-01-16.
• de Queiroz, A. (7 January 2014). The Monkey's Voyage: How Improbable Journeys Shaped the History of Life. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02051-5. OCLC 858975420.

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