A Comparative Wood Anatomy of 15 Woody Species in North-eastern Mexico

Published Date

Received: December 04, 2015 Accepted: January 07, 2016 Published: January 11, 2016

Author

Maiti R1*, Rodriguez HG1, Para AC2, CH Aruna Kumari3 and Sarkar NC3
1Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Carr. Nac. No. 85 Km. 45, Linares, Nuevo Leon 67700, México
2Artemillo Carrillo Para, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Carr. Nac. No. 85 Km. 45, Linares, Nuevo León 67700, México
3Crop Physiology, Professor Jaya Shankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Agricultural College, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529, India
*Corresponding Author :	Maiti R Visiting Scientist Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Facultad de Ciencias Forestales Carr. Nac. No. 85 Km. 45, Linares Nuevo Leon 67700, México Tel: 52-8116597090 E-mail: ratikanta.maiti@gmail.com; humberto.gonzlez@uanl.mx

Keywords

Wood anatomy; Hydraulic architecture; Woody species; Variation; Porosity; Vessel size; Fibres

Introduction

Wood is a hard, fibrous structural tissue present in the stems and roots of woody plants. Its main use is for furniture and building construction [1], used as firewood for thousands of years. Wood is composed mainly of three types of cells such as wood fibre cells (sclerenchyma), vessels, and wood parenchyma derived by secondary cambium.

In addition to the basic studies on the growth and development of wood elements, wood anatomical features play important role in the phylogeny of the species and also the adaptive capacity of the species to environmental stresses. Xylem vessel characteristics (such as length, breadth, perforation plate orientation and pits) predict general ecological and phylogenetic trends in wood anatomy, which suggest possible evolutionary tremds on the basis of the xylem vessel and other traits [2-9].

Significant research advances on wood anatomy and its significance in dendrology and application.

A study on anatomy of softwoods and the hardwoods of the world demonstrate characteristic endgrain patterns and intricate motifs (Eric Meier (http://www.wood-database.com/wood-articles/hardwood-anatomy/).

Wood anatomy is used to determine the specific characteristics of species. A comparative study has been undertaken on macroscopic and microscopic anatomical characteristics of five species of the family Rosaceae, Crateagus mexican, Pyrus cummunis, Pyrus malus, Prunus americana and Prunusdomestica. The results showed similar macro and microscopic characteristics [10]. In another study, it was observed that there exists a large variability in size, cell wall thickness and lumen breadth which may predict the quality and utility of the particular species [11].

Few studies have been undertaken on ultrastructure and biochemical changes in the development of wood elements. Increasing concentrations of ions flowing through the xylem of plants produce rapid, substantial, and reversible decreases in hydraulic resistance. One of the properties of polysaccharide hydrogels is to swell or shrink due to imbibition. When pectin swells, pores in the membranes are pressed, slowing water flow to a trickle. This remarkable control of water movement may allow the plant respond to drought conditions [12].

Interlocked grain causes change in the orientation of axial elements. In a study, vessel and fibre orientations in Acacia mangium Wild were compared macroscopically and microscopically to analyse the interlocked grain. A method to print the cylindrical surface of a dry wood disk after bark exfoliation was devised to evaluate the stem axis and circumferential grain fluctuation which revealed circumferential heterogeneity in the vessel orientation. Fibre orientation manifested on some radial splits also was heterogeneous microscopy. They measured fibre orientation angle with reflecting and polarized light microscopy, respectively, and fast Fourier transform. Both vessel and fibre orientations had a similar radial tendency and distinct inversion of the grain. However, the vessel orientation had larger amplitude of change than fibre orientation [13].

Using UV microspectrophotometry [14] studied the secondary wall structure of the tension wood of Laetia procera Poepp. (Flourtiaceae). It was observed that the secondary wall with alternate arrangement of thick and thin layers, possess S1 + S2 + S3 layers. It was observed that in the thick secondary wall, cellulose microfibril angle is very low (very close to fibre axis) and cellulose micro fibrils are well organized but in thin layer the cellulose microfibrils are less organized and oriented with a large angle in the axis of the cell. Thick layers are highly lignified.

A study was undertaken on structural heartwood characteristics of Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Wild.) M.C. Johnst., using light microscopy coupled with a digitised image analysis system. Average fibre length is 975 μm, the fibresare thick-walled with a single cell wall thickness of 13 μm on average. Average diameter of the vessels which are arranged in non-specific patterns differs significantly between earlywood (116 μm) and latewood (44 μm). The chemical distribution of lignin and phenolic deposits in the tissue was investigated by means of scanning UV microspectrophotometry (UMSP). Monosaccharides were qualitatively and quantitatively determined by borate complex anion exchange chromatography. Holocellulose content ranged between 61.5 and 64.7% and Klason lignin content between 29.8 and 31.4%. [15]. Later, a study was undertaken on wood anatomy and ultrastructure of the 3 species of wood of Prosopis growing in heterogeneous forest dry Chaqueño Park. The species studied were: Prosopis vinalillo, P. alba and P.nigra. The results show that the 3 species are very similar and consistent with the structural features of the subfamily Mimosoideae. However, the number of vessels/ mm2 was quite variable between species and between individuals of the same species. Samples observed under scanning electron microscope showed displaying ornamentations in pits and striations on the vessels walls. These striations were shown to be characteristics of the 3 Prosopis species [16].

Environments play a great role on wood anatomical characters and measured in tree-rings have proved to be useful in dendrochronology. A study was undertaken on wood anatomical features measured in tree-rings in the East-Ore Mountains, Germany in rings of trees grown under severe stresses. It is observed that environmental changes have caused modifications or adaptations of structural features in tree-rings. Overall, wood anatomy reveals clearly that growth and development of trees reflects dynamic processes [17]. Another study on wood antomy and annual rings of Prosopis pallida in the arid and semi-arid lands of the American continent revealed that P. pallida produced well-differentiated annual growth rings which are related to with precipitation events owing to El Niño Southern Oscillation phases [18].

Wood anatomical traits are found to be related to the adaptation of woody plant to environmental stresses. Various authors reported that the hydraulic architecture of woody plants determine the adaptive strategies to adverse climatic conditions of woody plants [3,6,8,19-28]. From a functional viewpoint, few vessel attributes such as narrow pores and pores multiples acts against cavitation and embolism under hot summer and freezing stress, thereby offering mechanical strength [22,29-33].

A study undertaken on the anatomical heartwood characteristics viz., fiber length (μm), diameter of vessels (μm), and the area of the vessels (μm2 revealed that in the locality Linares, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, with higher precipitation and lower temperature the wood showed higher fibre length and higher diameter of the vessels than China, Nuevo Leon [34].

Few studies have been undertaken on wood anatomy of Mediterranean woody species in relation to ecology and ecophysiology.

Various authors stated that the presence of narrow vessels and multiple vessels acts against cavitation during summer stress and winter freezing. Sperry [35] studied patterns in hydraulic architecture and their implications for transport efficiency.

The stem and root wood anatomy of the shrub-Phlomis fruticosa (Labiatae) a malacophyllous Mediterranean drought semi-deciduous species [36] has shown that the stem is comprised of diffuse-porous, narrow vessels arranged in tangential bands, vessel elements with oblique simple perforation plates, non-vestured, clustered alternate intervessel pits. It is concluded that though narrow vessels offer high conducting resistance, they are less vulnerable to cavitations, thus providing safety during summer drought and winter freezing. Vessel grouping is a widespread phenomenon in most woody species, especially those from the arid desert flora and Mediterranean species [20,37].

De Micco et al. [38] studied wood anatomy and hydraulic architecture of stems and twigs of some Mediterranean trees and shrubs along a mesic-xeric gradient. This study focuses on the anatomy of juvenile and mature wood of some species representative of continuous sequences of Mediterranean vegetation formations according to gradients of water availability, from xeric to relatively mesic: Although some attributes (i.e. porosity and type of imperforate tracheary elements) were similar in young twigs and older rings, other traits (i.e. vessel frequency and size) evidenced the different hydraulic properties of twig and stem wood. The difference between juvenile and mature structures was large in the species of the mesic end of the gradient while it was relatively small in those more xeric. The species showed large variations in wood anatomical traits, most of them are diffuse porous, few semi to ring porous, vessels are narrow resistant to cavitation during drought and freezing.

A study was undertaken on the seasonal dimorphism in wood anatomy studied [39] in Mediterranean subsp Cistus incanus has shown that brachyblast wood was safer than dolichoblast and has narrower and more frequent vessels. The measurement of other specific anatomical traits, such as vessel wall thickness, suggested that brachyblast wood has a higher resistance to implosion due to drought-induced embolism.

The present study is undertaken to determine the variability of wood anatomical structure 4s among 15 woody swpecies in Norteastern Mexico and to establish its possible relation with wood quality and utility.

Materials and Methods

The study was undertaken in the municipality of Linares, Nuevo León in Forest Faculty of Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (24°47’N; 99°32’E), at sea level of 350 m nm. The type of climate present according to Köppen, modified by Arcía (cited by [40]) is subtropical and semiarid condition with hot summer. The average monthly air temperatures oscillate between 14.7°C in January to 3°C in August, although the common temperature in summer is 45°C. The average annual precipitation is approximately 805 mm with a bimodal distribution. This site is situated in soils which are dark brown deep vertisols. The predominant vegetation is Tamaulipan Thorn Scrub or subtropical thorn scrub [41,42].

Wood samples were collected from Thornscrub forest around the Forest Science Faculty, Linares, UANL. The samples are soaked in water and boiled to soften them. Then, cross and longitudinal sections (15– 25 lm thick) were cut with a wood microtome. Depending on xylem structure, the sections are general transversal, radial and tangential. Transversal section was cut perpendicular to the length of trunk. In this plain, is observed the growth rings and its characteristics, breadth of rings, percentage early and late wood and type of transition among them. Rays were largely observed as lines which cross the growth ring in right angle. Other microscopic elements are type of pores, grouping and arrangement of pores, size of pores, size of rays, type of parenchyma, texture, type of transition among soft and heartwood, radial section, perpendicular to the rings. These sections were stained with 2% Safranin-O in water [43] and mounted with Canada Balsam and photographed by a digital camera fixed on to the microscope.

Results and Discussion

In the context of description of wood anatomical characteristics of 15 woody species in the semiarid regions of Northeast Mexico it may be stated that there existed large variation in various wood anatomical traits as well their hydraulic architecture. The specific distinguishable characteristic traits of each of these species are described as follows.

Description of wood anatomy of few woody species of Northeast Mexico

Microscopic characteristics (transverse section) The transverse section of a stem showing organization of primary and secondary xylem of each species is shown in Figure 1.

Wood rings are porous, vessels are not uniform in size, shape. Majority of vessels are solitary, very few are in multiples of 2, oval to rectangularish. Axial parenchyma is paratracheal, parenchyma aliform, confluent. Apotracheal parenchyma aggregated in tangential broad bands. Narrow marginal parenchyma is observed. Medular rays are distinct, little wavy separating radial bands of pores. Sclerenchyma is not abundant. Fibre cells, long with broad lumen, thin walled. Vessels small, truncated with slightly inclined end walls with broad perforation plate, pits round, numerous, alternate in arrangement. Wood tissue compact, seem to be hard associated with thick walled fibre cells and numerous pores (vessels) (Figure 2).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels mostly solitary, round to oval in shape, few in groups of 2 or 3, numerous, contained gummy substance. Non uniform in size. Vessels that are oval in shape, most of them are large, some are very small. Axial parenchyma confluent. Apotracheal parenchyma in the form of broad band, scalariform, marginal parenchyma is visible. Medulary rays thin to broad traverse through wood tissue. Rays short, more or less spindle shaped, mostly 2-3-cells in breadth, few uniseriate, heterogeneous, cells oval in shape. Vessels truncated, broad, short, more or less with straight simple perforation plates, pits elongated scalariform alternate in arrangement. Medullary ray cells stratified, multilayered, stratified, pits oval in shape, alternate in arrangement, evolutionary more advanced. Wood tissue is compact with thick walled fibre cells, profuse vessels, seem to be hard.

The apex of fibre cells is pointed to round, the lumen is somewhat broad, the cell wall is thin, but little lignified. Wood is semi-hard for fabrication of furniture (Figure 3).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels, ovoidal in shape, scanty, mostly solitary, big and small sized. infrequent. Pratracheal parenchyma aliform confluenytric and confluent, surrounded by many cells, apotracheal parenchyma in broad band, scalariform, medullary rays mediumly broad and thin traverse through the wood tissue. Rays spindle shaped short, 2-4 celled broad, heterogeneous, small celled. Rays multiseriate, broad, stratified fibre cells long, pointed, broad lumened with thin wall. Suitable for paper pulp. Vessels broad, short, truncated with straight perforation plate, pits elongated, alternate, evolutionary advanced. Wood tissue compact, hard. Some fiber cells are non-uniform, few are uniform, apex pointed, the lumen is broad, cell wall is mediumly thick but little lignified (Figure 4).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels are narrow, mostly solitary, few of two to three cells, oval in shape, profuse in numbers. Paratracheal parenchyma aliform confluent, apotracheal parenchyma in broad bands, scalariform, medulary rays, mediumly thick traverse through wood tissue. Vessels contained gummy materials. Wood is compact and hard (Figure 5).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels numerous, small sized, oval, some are very small. Wood tissue highly compact revealing that this wood is very hard. Paratracheal parenchyma aliform confluent, apotracheal in bands, scalariform. Rays narrow, long, 2-4 celled, heterogeneous, ray cells non-stratified (Figure 6).

Wood arranged in rings, diffuse porous, vessels few, arranged in groups 3 to 5 cells, ovoidal but compressed. Parenchyma vascicentric aliform. Apotracheal parenchyma in bands. Rays spindle shaped moderately long, maximum 3 to 6 celled in breadth, tapering, heterogeneous, compressed rays spindle shaped, very broad, mutilayered, composed highly compact small round cells, seems to be homogenous. Owing to the profuse quantity of ray and parenchymatous cells, the wood is soft. Rays are multiseriate, non-stratified. Vessels cylindrical, broad, medium in length, pits large, alternate in arrangement (Figure 7).

Wood partially ring porous, vessels are small and numerous, mostly isolated, few in radial groups of 3-4 cells, oval in shape. The vessels arranged in a ring of few cells, mostly in multiple 3-4 cells, large sized, somewhat ovoidal. Wood tissue compact. Paratracheal parenchyma vascicentric, apotracheal parenchyma diffuse. Owing to compact tissue, the wood seems to be very hard. Pratracheal parenchyma vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma in bands, somewhat scalariform. Rays uniseriate to biseriate, heterogeneous, short, cells round. Vessels cylindrical, long with oblique perforation plate, pits round, alternate. Vessels broad, long, cylindrical, pits oval, large sized, alternate in arrangement. The apex of fibre cells is pointed, cell wall is medium thick, lumen is thin. Good for soft furniture (Figure 8).

Wood seems to be partially ring porous, vessels arranged in clusters and several of these are of various sizes. Paratracheal parenchyma vascicentric, apotracheal in bands, wood tissue highly compact with profuse sclerenchyma, thereby imparting hardness to wood. Rays are small, mostly bi or tri-seriate, heterogeneous. Wood contained numerous exudates, gums. Wood tissue is loose, probably offering soft wood. The apex of fibre cells pointed with broad lumen, suitable for paper pulp (Figure 9).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels are oval or compressed. Parenchyma paratracheal vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma diffuse, terminal parenchyma present, fibres profuse, thereby imparting wood to be very hard. Rays numerous, mostly uniseriate, few biseriate composed of heterogenous ovoidal cells (Figure 10).

Wood appears to be semi-ring porous to ring porous. Vessels few, ovoid, not many, soltitary mostly few in radial groups of 2-3 cells, ovoidal in shape. Paratracheal parenchyma, vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma, scalariform. Terminal parenchyma present near the annual ring. Apotracheal parenchyma, aggregated. Wood is composed of mostly soft parenchymatous tissue, thereby, imparting soft wood nature. Rays short mostly uniseriate or 2-3 seriate, heterogenous (Figure 11).

Wood diffuse porous, vessels numerous, round, solitary, few in groups of 2-3. Paratracheal parenchyma, vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma scalariform in bands. Ray numerous, uniseriate, seems to be homogeneous of rectangularish cells. Vessels mediumly long with slightly inclined perforation plate. Wood tissue loose, probably producing soft wood (Figure 12).

Wood ring porous, Vessels scanty, mostly solitary, few in radial ring of 2 cells, separated by by long medullary rays. Paratracheal parenchyma vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma scalariform. Wood tissue is semi-compact imparting semi-hard wood nature (Figure 13).

Wood semi-ring porous. Vessels numerous, not uniform in size, round to oval in shape. Parenchyma seems to be partially vascicentric, The presence of profuse ground tissue seems to make the wood very soft. The fiber cells are uniform, apex is pointed, cell wall is thin, the lumen is little broad, suitable for paper.

The anatomical studies of these fifteen woody tree species of north eastern Mexico, has shown the existence of wide variability. Most of the species are ring to semiring porous viz. Acacia amentacea, Acacia berlandieri, Acacia shaffneri, Acacia wrightii, Cordia boissieri, Helietta parviflora, Condalia hookeri, Xanthoxylum fagara, Celtis pallida, Celtis laevigata, Caesalpinia mexicana, Eysenhardtia polystachya; only few of them are diffuse porous viz. Diospyros palmeri, Diospyros texana.

Fibre cell characteristics also showed large variations in morphology, size, lumen breadth on the basis of which the species are recommended for its utility such as furniture [44]. On the basis of compactness we recommended species as soft and hard wood. With respect to vessel size, most of the species have narrow vessels, viz., Acacia berlandieri, Acacia shaffneri, Acacia wrightii, Helietta parviflora, Cordia boissieri, Diospyros palmeri, Celtis laevigata, Eysenhardtia polystachya, Xanthoxyllum fagara. Celtis pallida contained medium sized vessels, while Celtis laevigata and Caesalpinia mexicana possessed big sized vessels. Recently Maiti [11] reported large variation in fibre cell morphology and its dimentions ampng 30 species of woody plants in Northeastrn Mexican and its possible relation to wood quality and its utility. In another study they interpreted that wood anatomy could predict wood quality [45].

With respect to variations of hydraulic architecture, various authors have emphasized the role of hydraulic architecture of woody plants in the adaptive strategies to adverse climatic conditions of woody plants [3,6,8,19-27]. From a functional viewpoint, various studies have discussed vessel pore size affecting conductivity, vulnerability to cavitation and mechanical strength [46]. The present study coincides with the observation with these authors that many of the species possess narrow vessels which although impose transport of water but protect the vessels against cavitation during drought and freezing. This has been observed in the Mediterranean climates where plants were exposed to hot dry climate separated by hard winter as have been reported by few authors [47]. Similar to the climatic conditions in the Mediterranean regions the climatic condition in Northeast Mexico where the trees are exposed to hot dry summer with temperature raising to more than 40°C separated cold climate of winter season with temperature going below to 5°C. It has been reported that vessel grouping is a widespread phenomenon in most woody species, especially those from the arid desert flora and Mediterranean species [48]. Therefore the species with small narrow vessels mentioned have strategy to adapt both to hot and cold climate against cavitation. The species having big vessel diameter may be susceptible to drought such as Celtis pallida, Caesalpinia mexicana or they may have deep root system for adaptation to semiarid climates in northeast Mexico.

Conclusions and Research needs

Our preliminary study on wood anatomy of 16 woody species in Northeastern Mexicio indicates that there exists large variability in wood anatomical traits which can be related in the species identification and quality determinations of the species. There is also large variability in the morphology, length, wall lignification of fibre cell in the woods among species. The intensity of lignification contribute to the strength and high quality timber for furniture, soft wood containing high amount of parenchymatous tissue and thin walled fibre cells for fabrication soft furniture, fences. Woods having fibre cells with broad lumen and thin wall could be suitable for the manufacture of paper documented in the literature. Therefore, there is a great necessity to evaluate the wood anatomical structures of trees in a forest and classify them for their suitability of various uses on the basis of wood anatomical structure. The selected wood of a particular species could be tested for its physical and chemical properties in a wood technology laboratory for its confirmation (Figure 15).

Wood ring porous traversed by broad medullary rays. Vessels solitary, few of 2 cells. Paratracheal parenchyma vascicentric. Apotracheal parenchyma in the form of bands. Marginal parenchyma few. The presence of profuse parenchyma imparts softness to the wood, not suitable for furniture. Rays are broad mostly multiseriate, heterogeneous. Vessels mediumly long with slightly inclined perforation plate.

Wood semi-ring to diffuse porous, large sized, mostly solitary, few in groups of 2. Parenchyma is aliform to confluent. Apotracheal parenchyma aggregated. Wood is composed numerous soft tissue, thereby, imparting softness to the wood. Rays are uniseriate, homogenous. The fiber cells are uniform, wide, mediumly long, apex pointed, lumen broad, uniform. Cell wall is thin. Good for paper pulp.

References

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Normally, exercise should boost your mood and leave you feeling energized and ready to face the rest of your day. These feelings largely occur due to the release of "feel-good" chemicals known as endorphins, which are produced by your body when you exercise. Endorphins serve to reduce your perception of pain and improve your mood. But don't beat yourself up if you feel depressed after your workout. Instead, examine what's going on inside and see if you might be your own worst enemy.

Too Much of a Good Thing

In a 2012 study, researchers at the Teacher's College of Columbia University examined self-reports from a sample of 7,674 adult respondents collected during the 2008 U.S. Health Information National Trends 2007 Survey to determine how much weekly exercise is beneficial for mental health. The researchers found that between 2.5 and 7.5 hours is optimal -- participants who exercised more than 7.5 hours a week had reduced feelings of well-being and poorer mental health than participants who remained in the optimal range. If you're feeling depressed after your workout, it's possible that you're simply overdoing it.

Ditch Unrealistic Expectations

Sometimes, people feel depressed when they set expectations that are too high or impossible to achieve. Perhaps your feelings of depression are stemming from a heavy mental burden of unrealistic expectations. Perhaps you've set an impractical weight-loss goal and you feel down about not having met it. Or perhaps you've set out with guns blazing, expecting that you're going to exercise every day for an hour, and your body and mind resist your efforts. Reevaluate your goals to see if you might be setting the bar too high.

It's Not All Black or White

Extremist thought patterns can be another reason you feel depressed after working out. Maybe you feel like you didn't put in 100 percent during your workout and you're mentally beating yourself up for minor or perceived "failures." You might have adopted an "all-good or all-bad" pattern of thinking. You don't cut yourself any slack and you leave no room for error.

According to a joint publication by the University of New South Wales and the Black Dog Institute, a mental health institute devoted to mood disorders, people who think in extremes and have a black-and-white, all-or-nothing mindset are more likely to feel depressed. Replace negative thought patterns with more positive concepts -- it's OK not to be perfect. And everyone occasionally feels like they didn't do enough. Forgive yourself, move on and focus on improving your next workout.

Gaining Instead of Losing

You might be putting a tremendous amount of effort into your workout and busting your butt on a daily basis. But when it comes time to weigh in, you're shocked to find that instead of losing, you've actually gained a pound or two. When you return to the gym, you might not feel as much enthusiasm or energy for your workout. Afterwards, you might be asking yourself, "What's the point?" and wondering why you've expended so much effort for what might seem to be little or no reward. But don't panic -- according to personal trainer William Sukala in an article for Weight Watchers, a number of factors can cause short-term weight gain after you exercise, including changes in body composition and water weight. And the scale doesn't always immediately reflect the positive changes you've made to your body. Stick with your workouts and shift your focus to becoming healthier, leaner and stronger -- this might help you fend off post-workout feelings of depression.

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7 Tips to Get Fit Without Going to the Gym

By COURTNEY SULLIVAN

LIVESTRONG.COM is dedicated to empowering and inspiring people of all ages to live an active, healthy life. In light of that mission, the Editorial Team has teamed up with ShimmerTeen.com to create content that promotes health and wellness for teens.

Exercise is a great way to lose and manage body weight, but working out also comes with tons of other benefits. It helps your body release endorphins, a type of neurotransmitter that makes you feel happy and calm. It also increases mental clarity and focus, reduces stress, and improves self-esteem and self-confidence. (Yes, please!) If this list makes you want to start working out right now, you can! Getting in shape does not require a gym membership or a collection of at-home exercise equipment.

Here are some of my favorite ways to work out without spending a lot or going too far:

1. Walking. More than 2,400 years ago, Hippocrates said, “Walking is a man’s best medicine.” It’s a great, low-impact cardiovascular exercise. Long distance walking (45 minutes to 1 hour or more) is great for fat burning. Make a goal of 10,000 steps per day for overall health, stable blood sugar (helps with energy and curbing cravings) and weight loss or maintenance.

2. Hiking. Grab a friend or family member and head to your nearest nature trail. If you're not sure of the closest hiking area, check online. Hiking is a great way to enjoy and explore the outdoors (if the weather allows for it), without putting too much pressure on your joints. One hour of hiking can burn 500 or more calories depending on the incline and weight you might be carrying in your backpack. Long-distance hiking can also decrease blood pressure and cholesterol and may improve anti-oxidative capacity, which helps fight off disease and lower stress.

3. Jumping Rope. Jumping rope is fun and it works your upper and lower body at the same time. It's also a great way to get your heart rate up and burn calories quickly when you're in a time crunch. It's best to jump rope on a wood floor or an impact mat to reduce stress on the joints. For best results, perform 50-200 reps on the jump rope (3-5 sets), intermixed with a strength-training program (see below).

4. Stairs. Stair climbing can actually burn more calories per minute than jogging. It promotes weight loss and muscle tone and strengthens your lungs and heart. A 120-pound person walking up the stairs for 30 minutes burns an estimated 220 calories. Even two flights of stairs climbed per day can lead to six pounds of weight loss per year.

5. Yoga. Yoga is great for lengthening and strengthening muscles. It helps to build your core strength, while improving your balance and flexibility. You can do yoga using a DVD, an online video or a written guide (found online or in a book). You can also check local listings for "donation only" yoga classes that don't require you to pay a fee.

6. Wii Fit, Xbox Kinect and Other Fitness Games: Fitness games combine entertainment with activity to make working out feel like less of a chore. You can do them with friends, too.  They help the time pass quickly, and before you know it, you'll have completed your workout!

7. Strength Training. Using your own body weight can be just as difficult, if not more difficult, than using workout machines at the gym. I recommend incorporating strength training at least twice per week into your fitness routine. Here is a starter plan for strengthening your entire body.

* Lunges or lunge jumps: 20 reps on each leg, two to three sets.

* Squats or squat jumps: 20 reps, two to three sets.

* Push-ups: 10 reps, two to three sets. Make sure you use proper form. If you have poor form at first, do the push-ups on your knees until you improve your strength.

* Pull-ups: Do as many as you can, with a goal of 3-10 reps. It's best if you can have a friend assist you and help hold your legs, or they can give you a boost if need be. Don't strain your back or neck trying to do more pull-ups than you can at first. Do what you feel comfortable with and build your strength from there.

* Tricep dips: 10-12 reps, two to three sets.  This can be done on a chair or bench in your home or at a local park.

* Bicycle crunches: 20 reps, two sets.

* Core plank: Hold the position for 30 seconds, with 2-3 reps. Your elbows should be directly below your shoulders. Hold your core tight and make sure there is a straight line from your head to your toes. To keep good form, avoid sticking your butt in the air or allowing it to sink too far towards the floor.

* Side plank: Hold this position on your right side for 20 seconds, and then hold on your left side for 20 seconds. Repeat for a total of two sets.

* “Supermans”: Lie flat on your stomach, arms stretched out above your head, legs straight back. Lift arms and legs off the ground several inches at the same time, then lower back down. Do 10 reps, two to three sets. This exercise is great for strengthening your lower back, a muscle that is often weak and missed in most workouts.

Get Going and Keep it Up!It's easy to get started with a new exercise routine, but it can be harder to stick with it over time. To set yourself up for long-term success and ensure you get ALL the perks you want from your new fitness plan, try these tips!

* Create a support network. People are more likely to stay on track toward their fitness goals if they have friends and family keeping them accountable and helping them along the way. A workout partner can make sure you don't miss a walk or a yoga session. You can ask your parents to help by buying healthy foods for the house and maybe a new pair of athletic shoes!

* Start slow and set reasonable goals for yourself. Maybe you want to work your way up to 60 minutes of exercise a day. You don't have to get there today or this week. You can set mini goals — 30 minutes, 35 minutes, 40 minutes­ — so that you get there gradually. You'll find that you gain more endurance, too.

* Eat enough, drink enough water and get some rest! Working out feels great, and you may feel inspired to push yourself to the max. But overdoing it can cause exhaustion and dehydration, which can actually set you back in reaching your fitness goals. Make sure to nourish yourself along the way!

Readers — Do you exercise at home or at a gym? Are you thinking of starting a new fitness routine? Which kind of activities do you prefer? Solo or group workouts? Leave a comment below and let us know!

Courtney Sullivan, RD, NASM-CPT, is the Founder of Nutrition for Body and Mind and she is also ShimmerTeen.com's Nutrition and Fitness Expert. Courtney is passionate about helping people reach optimal health through the delicate balance of nutrition and exercise. In her private practice, she focuses on lifestyle behavior modifications, fitness, wellness, sports nutrition tactics, supplementation protocols, hydration needs, and customized nutrition and fitness plans. Courtney graduated cum laude from the University of Arizona with a major in nutritional science and a focus on dietetics, as well as a minor in chemistry.

Follow ShimmerTeen on Twitter and Facebook. 

References:“Chapter 3: Active Children and Adolescents.” 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2008. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

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What Are the Benefits of Massage on the Circulatory System?

There are many types of massage, but deep tissue massage in particular can really promote strong circulation. Photo Credit massage image by Adam Borkowski from <a href='http://www.fotolia.com'>Fotolia.com</a>

Massage therapy can provide numerous benefits to the body and mind. In addition to treating overworked or tight muscles, massage can also greatly help circulation throughout the body and relieve tension and stress, which are known risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Massage therapy is helpful if you are already healthy or if you are recovering from certain injuries. Ask your doctor whether massage therapy is safe for you.

Increased Blood Flow

Massage therapy can help improve blood flow to the tissues, muscles and vital organs, according to the Associated Bodywork & Massage Professionals. Increased blood flow is a key element of good health, as blood carries oxygen and important nutrients.



Strong and consistent flow of oxygen-rich blood to brain tissue is essential to help preserve cognitive function and protect against strokes, according to the Family Caregiver Alliance. Sustained blood flow can also help keep muscles from cramping while also preserving organ function and maintaining healthy skin.

Improved Blood Pressure

Since massage can improve relaxation, the reduction in stress and release of stress chemicals in the body can help lower blood pressure, according to MayoClinic.com, which notes that massage and other relaxation techniques help relieve "the wear and tear on your mind and body."



MayoClinic.com also notes that massage and other types of relaxation techniques can help slow your heart and breathing rates, which can aid your circulatory and respiratory systems.

Healthier Fascia

Massage can help improve the health of your fascia, a thin layer of tissue that surrounds and penetrates muscles, bones, organs and other tissue throughout the body, according to the National Institute of Massotherapy in Cleveland. All major blood vessels are connected to these sheathes of fascia, so if the fascia is properly aligned and healthy, your circulatory and nervous systems will benefit, the Institute says.

Relief of Strain and Swelling During Pregnancy

Pregnant women typically find additional strain in the lower back, legs, head and neck, so prenatal massage can be a healthy and beneficial treatment during pregnancy. Edema, or swelling of the joints during pregnancy, can be due in part to reduced circulation. The American Pregnancy Association suggests that prenatal massage can reduce the likelihood of edema and promote improved circulation, which in turn can help promote good health for the baby, too.

www.livestrong.com

Matcha Tea for Weight Loss

Matcha tea. Photo Credit bhofack2/iStock/Getty Images

One of the darlings of the tea world, matcha is a stone-ground green tea and a traditional staple in Japan. Now it's making a splash in the United States, with coffee shops and juice bars around the nation not only carrying it, but singing its praises. It's marketed for weight loss and other health benefits, but it's too early to know whether it unequivocally enhances weight loss. The bulk of the available data is based on research on mice, which may not translate to humans. Still, matcha is a unique, antioxidant-rich and health-promoting beverage you may want to incorporate into your weight loss plan.

Matcha Versus Regular Green Tea

Both matcha and regular green tea come from from the Camellia sinensis plant -- as do all other green teas -- so you may wonder what the difference is between the two. The key to matcha's benefits is in the processing; once the leaves are dry they're finely ground using stone mills, resulting in a fine powder.

So the matcha beverage you pick up at your local coffee shop contains 100 percent of the tea leaf, which is unlike regular green tea, in which the leaves are steeped in water and the nutrients come from what leaches out into the liquid. Because you're consuming the leaf in whole form when you drink matcha, you're getting a more concentrated source of nutrients from the plant and perhaps additional nutrients that aren't water-soluble.

Matcha Tea and Weight Loss

The major antioxidant in green tea -- EGCG -- is linked to potential weight loss benefits, and matcha has more of it than regular green tea. The EGCG concentration from drinking matcha is three times higher than that of regular green tea, according to an analysis the "Journal of Chromatography" reported in September 2003.

The EGCG in matcha may boost your metabolism during moderate-intensity exercise, thus enhancing weight loss, suggests a small study. On average, green tea extract increased study participants' fat-burning capabilities by 17 percent when they engaged in cycling exercise for 30 minutes. This study only had 12 subjects, so more studies are needed using a larger sample size and actual brewed tea instead of the extract. The good news is that the amount of EGCG used in the study may be found in a cup or two of matcha tea, based on studies published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition in March 2008.

Matcha Health Benefits

The rich polyphenol compounds found in matcha and other plant foods in your diet help lower the risk of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, osteoporosis and cancer; they also help keep your brain healthy as you age. And, plant polyphenols are often cited for their role in heart health; they fight against hardening of the arteries, known medically as "atherosclerosis," according to a review published in the Oxidative Medicine and Cullular Longevity journal in November 2009. Atherosclerosis causes arteries to narrow and become clogged, which may cause heart attack or stroke. Other ways polyphenols may protect your heart is by increasing good cholesterol, reducing inflammation, and improving circulation in your arteries by preventing your blood from clotting.

Incorporating Matcha

Take advantage of the health benefits of matcha by replacing your morning cup of Joe with this health-promoting tea. To incorporate it into your weight loss plan, drink matcha tea between meals. Sipping tea with your snacks may help keep your appetite in check while you follow a reduced-calorie diet. EGCG stimulates hormones that help you feel full, according to an experiment the Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition published in September 2015. To boost your fat-burning capacity during workouts, have a cup of matcha 30 minutes before working out. For optimal weight loss, it's imperative to combine a nutritious reduced-calorie diet with regular exercise.

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