A new approach to prediction of the age-age correlation for use in tree breeding

Published Date
Author

• Deogratias M. Rweyongeza

Original Paper

First Online: 

31 August 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s13595-016-0570-5

Cite this article as: 

Rweyongeza, D.M. Annals of Forest Science (2016). doi:10.1007/s13595-016-0570-5

Abstract

Key message

Early selection in tree breeding requires a credible age-age correlation. Modelling height growth in provenance and progeny trials, we can predict age-age correlations suitable for use in operational breeding as described in this article.

Context

Tree breeding involves early selection, which is an indirect selection using a genetic correlation. This study describes a procedure of predicting an age-age phenotypic correlation as a surrogate for a genetic correlation. Although the predicted correlations are based on white spruce (Picea glauca) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) data, they can be used in other coniferous species with similar mode of height growths.

Aims

The aim of the study is to predict a correlation coefficient used to adjust breeding values at a measurement age to breeding values at a rotation age. This correlation is derived from the observed height growth trajectories of trees in progeny and provenance trials.

Methods

Correlation prediction equations were developed using modelled height growth in provenance and progeny trials of lodgepole pine and white spruce. The time lag between successive tree ages was used as a correlation predictor variable.

Results

Correlations differed between spruce and pine but the differences narrowed as trees grew older. For example, a correlation between 20 and 100 years was 0.607 for spruce and 0.470 for pine, whereas that of 30 and 100 was 0.826 for spruce and 0.832 for pine. Based on the age-age correlation, the optimum selection age for a 100-year rotation age is 40–50 years. Parameters of the tree height growth function exhibited significant genetic variance and genotype × environment interaction.

Conclusion

After the age of 40 years, age-age correlation for height may be less important for selection and genetic gain prediction than the correlation between height and diameter, which is declining with tree age.

References

1. Beckley TM (1989) Moving toward consensus-based forest management: a comparison of industrial, co-managed, community and small private forests in Canada. For Chron 74:736–744. doi:10.5558/tfc74736-5CrossRef
2. Bond BJ, Czarnomski NM, Cooper C, Day ME, Greenwood MS (2007) Developmental decline in height growth in Douglas-fir. Tree Physiol 27:441–453. doi:10.1093/treephys/27.3.441
3. Chang SJ (1984) Determination of the optimum rotation age: a theoretical analysis. Forest Ecol Manag 8:137–147CrossRef
4. Costa P, Durel CE (1996) Time trends in genetic control over height and diameter in maritime pine. Can J For Res 26:1209–1217. doi:10.1139/x26-135CrossRef
5. Cotterill PP, Dean CA (1988) Changes in genetic control of growth of radiata pine to 16 years and efficiencies of early selection. Silvae Genet 37:138–146
6. Danjon F (1994) Heritability and genetic correlations for estimated growth curve parameters in maritime pine. Theor Appl Genet 89:911–921. doi:10.1007/BF00224517PubMed
7. de Sousa GP, Bortoletto N, Cardinal ABB, Gouvêa LRL, Da Costa RB, De Moraes MLT (2005) Age-age correlation for early selection of rubber tree genotypes in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Genetics Mol Biol 28:758–764. doi:10.1590/S1415-47572005000500018
8. Falconer DS, Mackay TFC (1996) Introduction to quantitative genetics, 4th edn. Longman Group Ltd, London
9. Gill JGS (1987) Juvenile-mature correlations and trends of genetic variances in Sitka spruce in Britain. Silvae Genet 36:189–194
10. Grattapaglia D, Resende MDV (2011) Genomic selection in forest tree breeding. Tree Genet Genomes 7:241–255. doi:10.1007/s11295-010-0328-4CrossRef
11. Gwaze DP, Wooliams JA, Kanowski PJ (1997) Optimum selection age for height in Pinus taeda L. in Zimbabwe. Silvae Genet 46:358–364
12. Hodge GR, White TL (1992) Genetic parameter estimates for growth traits at different ages in slash pine and some implications for breeding. Silvae Genet 41:252–262
13. Huang S, Titus SJ, Weins DP (1992) Comparison of nonlinear height-diameter functions for major Alberta tree species. Can J Forest Res 22:1297–1304. doi:10.1139/x92-172CrossRef
14. SAS Institute (2004) SAS System for Windows. Version 9.2. Carry, NC.
15. Isik F (2014) Genomic selection in forest tree breeding: the concept and an outlook to the future. New Forest. doi:10.1007/s11056-014-9422-z
16. Jansson G, Li B, Hannrup B (2003) Time trends in genetic parameters for height and optimal age for parental selection in Scots pine. Forest Sci 49:696–705
17. Kramer PJ, Kozlowski TT (1979) Physiology of woody plants. Academic Press Inc, San Diego
18. Kremer A (1992) Prediction of age-age correlations of total height based on serial correlations between height increments in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.). Theor Appl Genet 85:152–158. doi:10.1007/BF00222853PubMed
19. Kroon J, Andersson B, Mullin TJ (2008) Genetic variation in the diameter-height relationship in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Can J Forest Res 38:1493–1503. doi:10.1139/X07-233CrossRef
20. Kung FH (1973) Development and use of juvenile-mature correlations in a black walnut tree improvement program. In: Proceedings of the 12th Southern Forest Tree Improvement conference. P 243–249. Available at http://www.rngr.net/publications/tree-improvement-proceedings/sftic/1973. Accessed 20 December 2015
21. Kung FH (1993) Modeling loblolly pine age-age correlation for height using the degree of non-determination. In. Proceedings of the 22nd Southern Forest Tree Improvement conference. P 334–340. Available at http://www.rngr.net/publications/tree-improvement-proceedings/sftic/1993 Accessed 20 December 2015
22. Lambeth CC (1980) Juvenile-mature correlations in Pinaceae and implications for early selection. For Sci 26:571–580
23. Lambeth C, Dill LA (2001) Prediction models for juvenile-mature correlations for loblolly pine growth traits within, between and across sites. For Genet 8:101–108
24. Lambeth CC, Van Buijtenen JP, Duke SD, McCullough RB (1983) Early selection if effective in 20-year-old genetic tests of loblolly pine. Silvae Genet 32:210–215
25. Lotan JE, Critchfield WB (1990) Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH (eds) Silvics of North America, vol 1, Agriculture Handbook 654. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington DC, pp pp 302–pp 315
26. Luckert MK, Haley D (1995) The allowable cut effect as a policy instrument in Canadian forestry. Can J For Res 25:1821–1829. doi:10.1139/x95-197CrossRef
27. Meng SX, Huang S (2010) Incorporating correlated error structure into mixed forest growth models: prediction and inference implications. Can J For Res 40:977–990. doi:10.1139/X10-032CrossRef
28. Mullin TJ, Park YS (1994) Genetic parameters and age-age correlations in clonally replicated test of black spruce after 10 years. Can J For Res 24:2330–2341. doi:10.1139/x94-301CrossRef
29. Nair KR (1954) The fitting of growth curves. In: Kempthorne O (ed) Statistics and mathematics in biology. Iowa State University, Ames, pp p 119–p 133
30. Namkoong G, Conkle MT (1976) Time trends in genetic control of height growth in ponderosa pine. Forest Sci 22:2–12
31. Namkoong G, Kang H (1990) Quantitative genetics of forest trees. In: Janick J (ed) Plant breeding reviews, vol 8. Timber Press Inc, Portland OR
32. Namkoong G, Usanis RA, Silen RR (1972) Age-related variation in genetic control of height growth in Douglas-fir. Theor Appl Genet 42:151–159. doi:10.1007/BF00280791PubMedCrossRef
33. Natural Resources Canada. 2014. The State of Canada’s Forests Annual Report. ISSN 1488–2736
34. Newton PF (2015) Genetic worth effect models for boreal conifers and their utility when integrated into density management decision-support system. Open J For 5:105–115. doi:10.4236/ojf.2015.51011
35. Niklas KJ (2007) Maximum plant height and biophysical factors that limit it. Tree Physiol 27:433–440. doi:10.1093/treephys/27.3.433PubMedCrossRef
36. Resende MFR Jr, Munoz P, Acosta JJ, Peter GG, Davis JM, Grattapaglia D, Resende MDV, Kist M (2012) Accelerating the domestication of trees using genomic selection: accuracy of prediction models across ages and environments. New Phytol 193:617–624PubMedCrossRef
37. Richards FJ (1959) A flexible growth function for empirical use. J Exp Bot 10:290–300. doi:10.1093/jxb/10.2.290CrossRef
38. Rweyongeza DM (2011) Pattern of genotype-environment interaction in Picea glauca(Moench) Voss in Alberta, Canada. Ann For Sci 68:245–253. doi:10.1007/s13595-011-0032-zCrossRef
39. Rweyongeza DM, Yeh FC, Dhir NK (2004) Genetic parameters for seasonal height and height growth curves of white spruce seedlings and their implications to early selection. Forest Ecol Manag 187:159–172. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(03)00329-3CrossRef
40. Rweyongeza DM, Yang R-C, Dhir NK, Barnhardt LK, Hansen C (2007) Genetic variation and climatic impacts on survival and growth of white spruce in Alberta, Canada. Silvae Genet 56:117–127
41. Rweyongeza DM, Barnhardt LK, Dhir NK, Hansen C (2010) Population differentiation and climatic adaptation for growth potential of white spruce (Picea glauca) in Alberta, Canada. Silvae Genet 59:158–169
42. Tauer CG, McNew RW (1985) Inheritance and correlation of growth of shortleaf pine in two environments. Silvae Genet 34:5–11
43. Vanderklein D, Martinez-Vilalta J, Lee S, Mencuccini M (2007) Plant size, not age, relates growth and gas exchange in grafted Scots pine trees. Tree Physiol 27:71–79. doi:10.1093/treephys/27.1.71PubMedCrossRef
44. White TL, Adams WT, Neal DB (2007) Forest genetics. CABI Publishing, Cambridge, MACrossRef
45. Xie CY, Yanchuk AD (2003) Breeding values of parental trees, genetic worth of seed orchard seedlots, and yields of improved stocks in British Columbia. West J Appl For 18:88–100
46. Xie C–Y, Ying CC (1996) Heritabilities, age-age correlations and early selection in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta spp. latifolia). Silvae Genet 45:101–105
47. Ye TZ, Jayawickrama KJS (2012) Early selection for improving volume growth in coastal Douglas-fir breeding programs. Silvae Genet 61:186–198
48. Zobel B, Talbert J (1984) Applied forest tree improvement. John Wiley & Sons, New York

For further details log on website :
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13595-016-0570-5

About Dark Under-Eye Circles in Children

by JON WILLIAMS   

Teenage girl with dark circle under her eyes working on a laptop. Photo Credit Ana Blazic/iStock/Getty Images

The presence of dark circles under someone’s eyes creates the appearance of poor health. When children have dark circles under their eyes, the contradiction between their youthful years and haggard appearance seems particularly worrisome. Dark circles under your child's eyes can indicate a number of possible conditions. More often than not, they indicate conditions that can easily be improved.

Nasal Congestion and Allergies

The most common cause of dark, bluish circles under the eyes of children is sinus congestion, reports Barton D. Schmitt, M.D., at Parents. Inflammation and congestion in the nasal passage cause the veins around the child's eyes to enlarge and become darker, creating the dark tinge under the eyes. Often the underlying condition is hay fever or allergy. The common cold can also trigger inflammation, and additionally causes mouth breathing, which can contribute to circles under the eyes. If you treat the underlying conditions, the dark circles should disappear.

Eczema

Children with eczema, a skin condition distinguished by inflammation, redness, itching and swelling of the skin, appear to have circles under their eyes when the eczema affects the area under their eyes. A 2007 study by Jon M. Hanifin and Michael L. Reed reported at Medscape Today indicates that eczema affects 6 to 17 percent of the U.S. population. According to Wrong Diagnosis, eczema is characterized by episodic rashes that come and go in response to skin irritants, stress and allergens. Circles under the eyes that come and go in consort with other rash conditions may indicate eczema. Consult with your child’s pediatrician to affirm the diagnosis and discuss treatment options.

Genetics

Circles can also result from a genetic proclivity to have dark skin pigment in the area just beneath the eyes. This hereditary condition can affect men, women and children. If careful medical evaluation fails to reveal an underlying medical condition, your child’s dark circles may be hereditary. A hereditary condition may also be indicated if one or more close family members also have dark circles under the eyes. Treatments can include makeup, laser therapy and surgery. MayoClinic.com cautions that these cosmetic interventions may produce limited improvement in appearance. Finally, deep-set eyes and a prominent forehead can create the impression of dark circles under the eyes.

Ethnicity Factors

Children from ethnicities who have greater skin pigmentation, such as Asians and blacks, can have irregularities in pigmentation that create the appearance of dark rings under the eyes. For example, according to Mayo Clinic, some Japanese children have dark rings under their eyes due to melanocytosis, a condition that causes overproduction of skin pigment. This condition reportedly can be treated by laser treatment.

Lifestyle

Various lifestyle practices can improve or exacerbate the appearance of circles under the eyes, according to Wrong Diagnosis. Chronic or repeated exposure to the sun produces extra pigment, which can make dark circles under the eyes worse. Your child should wear dark glasses and use sunscreen to reduce exposure to the sun. Chronic sleep deprivation can create pallor in the skin, which worsens the appearance of circles under the eyes. Guide your child into healthier sleep patterns. Poor hydration can contribute to under-eye circles. Monitor your child’s fluid intake, and keep her well hydrated. Also, sudden weight loss or lack of nutrients, particularly iron deficiency, can contribute to under-eye circles.

www.livestrong.com

What Food Allergies Cause Under Eye Circles?

by JON WILLIAMS 

Splash in a glass of milk Photo Credit Sergey Peterman/Hemera/Getty Images

Overview

A variety of conditions can cause dark circles or puffiness under your eyes. Genetics, nasal congestion, environmental allergies, eczema, lack of sleep, alcohol abuse, poor hydration and nutritional deficiencies can all contribute to the appearance of dark circles under the eyes, according to MayoClinic.com. For some people, dark circles may occur as part of an allergic or hypersensitive response to particular foods. The darkness occurs because the skin under the eyes becomes inflamed. Touching or rubbing the irritated skin makes the circles worse. While over 140 foods cause allergic responses, about 90 percent of food allergies are caused by just a few types of food, according to the World’s Healthiest Foods website.

Dairy

Dairy allergies are fairly common. In addition to dark eye circles, other symptoms may include indigestion, nausea, cramps, diarrhea, rashes, hives, congestion, tightness in the chest and asthma attacks. Some people develop these adverse responses because they are allergic to the casein or whey proteins that are found in milk. A closely related condition, lactose intolerance, occurs in people who lack the lactase enzyme that breaks down lactose in milk. Lactose intolerance causes indigestion but it does not involve the immune system and doesn’t directly cause dark circles under the eyes.

Tyramine Sensitivity

Certain foods contain an amino acid called tyramine that triggers an inflammatory response from the immune system in sensitive persons. Foods that contain tyramine include sausage, chocolate, sour cream, red wine, avocado, beer, raspberries, yeast and pickled herring, reports the World’s Healthiest Foods website. Tyramine is also contained in soy-based, processed and aged cheeses, including Romano, Asiago, American, Gouda, Roquefort, Provolone, Colby and Parmesan.

Wheat

Gluten is a substance found in wheat, wheat flour, wheat products, barley and rye. Primarily comprised of protein, gluten triggers an immune system response in sensitive people. Gluten sensitivity does not qualify as a true allergic response because the body does not necessarily produce specific antibodies in response to the gluten. Nonetheless, the reactions to gluten can be systemic, causing inflammation of skin, as well as other symptoms. Read ingredient labels carefully because many processed foods contain gluten or wheat products.

Preservatives and Additives

Preservatives and additives such as sodium benzoate, butylated hydroxytoluene salicylates and dyes can cause hives or other intolerance reactions in sensitive persons, reports the World’s Healthiest Foods website. Avoid processed foods and read ingredient labels when you do choose to eat food from a box.

Further Allergens and What to Do

Hen’s eggs; citrus fruits; soy and soy products; peanuts;, shell fish such as prawns, lobster, crab, clams and shrimp; and tree nuts, such as almonds pecans, cashews, walnuts, Brazil nuts, pistachios, chestnuts and hazelnuts, all can trigger inflammation in sensitive individuals.

Begin eliminating foods that may contribute to dark circles from your diet, monitoring how the circles and your other symptoms respond. If they improve, then slowly reintroduce the foods, one by one, back into your diet. If the circles and other symptoms return, then eliminate that food from your diet. Speak with your doctor about your concerns before making drastic changes to your diet.

www.livestrong.com

The Best Supplements to Get Rid of Dark Circles Under Your Eyes

by NICOLE LANGTON  

Vitamin C supplements support blood vessels and may help reduce dark circles.Photo Credit Fuse/Fuse/Getty Images

Overview

While lack of sleep and genetic tendencies can contribute to dark circles under the eyes, nutrition also plays a role. Some dietary supplements can counteract the nutrient deficiencies that contribute to dark circles. Others supplements supply nutrients that support healthy blood vessels and collagen around the eyes. If you have any health conditions or take medications, consult your health care provider before starting a supplement regimen.

Iron

Iron deficiency can lead to dark-under-eye circles. Photo Credit Yuri Arcurs/Hemera/Getty Images

Iron deficiency can lead to dark under-eye circles, notes a February 2007 article in the online edition of the Daily Mail. It can also cause paler skin, making shadows under the eyes the stand out more. Around 20 percent of women and 3 percent of men are deficient in this mineral, with pregnant woman at even greater risk for deficiency. Women need 18mg daily, while men need 8mg. To avoid iron overload, discuss your optimal dosage with your health care provider before taking iron supplements, particularly if you're a man or a women past reproductive age.

Vitamin B9

Supplementing with B vitamins may help. Photo Credit diego_cervo/iStock/Getty Images

Getting more vitamin B9, or folic acid, may help reduce your dark circles. As with other B vitamins, B9 is vital for healthy skin and eyes. Adults need around 400mcg of this vitamin daily. Vitamin B9 works with vitamins B6 and B12; because B vitamins work together as a group, supplements usually contain the whole B vitamin complex, rather than just one vitamin.

Vitamin C

Taking vitamin C can help strengthen your blood vessels. Photo Credit Siraphol/iStock/Getty Images

When blood vessels under the eyes become weak and dilated, dark circles can appear. Loss of collagen under the eyes, which leads to thinner skin, also increases the appearance of under-eye shadows. Taking vitamin C may help you combat this by strengthening your blood vessels and supporting healthy collagen. Adult men require 90mg daily, while women need 75mg daily. Smokers require even more. If you smoke, consult your health care provider about dosage.

Grape Seed Extract

Grape seed extract contains antioxidants that support blood vessel health.Photo Credit Nikolay Dimitrov/iStock/Getty Images

Grape seed extract contains antioxidants called oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes, or OPCs, which support blood vessel health and can help fade dark circles, according to the website DailyGlow.com. This extract's effect on the blood vessels is so strong that it may help with chronic venous insufficiency in the legs. It may also protect collagen, note experts at the University of Maryland Medical Center. For vascular health, take 150 to 300mg daily, suggest UMMC experts. If you take anticoagulants like warafin, consult your health care provider before using grape seed extract.

www.livestrong.com

Can Sublingual B-12 Help You Get Rid of Dark Circles?

by SIRAH DUBOIS 

Woman holding a cup of coffee looking at her eyes in a mirror Photo Credit John Howard/Photodisc/Getty Images

Dark circles under your eyes significantly contribute to how other people perceive your health and age. Contrary to popular belief, dark circles usually are not a sign of exhaustion or serious illness, although they can make you feel older, unhealthy and tired. Dark circles have multiple causes, including genetic links. They affect both men and women, often starting in adulthood, although children can develop them also. Vitamin B-12 deficiency may play a role in the formation or accentuation of dark circles under your eyes. Consult with your doctor about potential causes and ways to help you get rid of dark eye circles.

Causes of Dark Circles

There are a number of factors that contribute to causing the formation of dark circles underneath your eyes. The area around your eyes is covered by thin and delicate skin, which is filled with small blood vessels called capillaries. Blood sometimes leaks from these vessels, which degrades and discolors the overlying skin much like a bruise does. Heredity is a primary cause of dark circles because it dictates skin tone, including the degree of transparency, which can highlight the discoloration caused by the degradation of the hemoglobin within the leaked blood. Genes are also related to weakened capillaries in the tissue around your eyes. Other common causes of dark circles include allergies, anemia, overexposure to the sun, eczema and dietary and lifestyle factors. Tiredness may accentuate your dark circles because lack of sleep makes your skin pale and causes puffiness around your eyes, which can cast shadows.

Functions of B-12

Vitamin B-12, or cobalamin, is a large, complex molecule involved in metabolism, energy production, nerve function, cell division, brain function and the production of red blood cells in your bone marrow, according to “The New Encyclopedia of Vitamins, Minerals, Supplements and Herbs.” A deficiency of B-12 leads to anemia, or lack of red cells, and reduced metabolic function, among other problems. Red blood cells are needed to carry oxygen to your tissues and metabolism is necessary for energy production.

B-12 for Tiredness and Pale Skin

Common symptoms of anemia caused by a B-12 deficiency include tiredness and pale skin, explains the “Textbook for Functional Medicine.” As noted, pale skin and tiredness accentuate dark circles under your eyes. As such, B-12 deficiency does not seem to be a direct cause of dark circles, but may be a significant contributing factor. B-12 is found in meats, seafood and green leafy vegetables, but B-12 deficiency is often caused by an inability to absorb it from the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, B-12 injections or sublingual supplementation may be necessary.

Sublingual B-12

B-12 sublingual supplements largely bypass the stomach and intestines because the vitamin gets absorbed by the thin mucosa underneath your tongue, albeit not very efficiently. Adults require between 2 and 3 micrograms of B-12 per day to avoid deficiency symptoms, but sublingual B-12 supplements are often at least 50 micrograms and sometimes as high as 500 micrograms so as to counteract the low absorption rates. As such, if you suspect that your dark eye circles are strongly related to B-12 deficiency, you should consider a B-12 injection from your doctor.

www.livestrong.com

Vitamins to Eliminate Dark Circles Under the Eyes & Have Better Skin

by BARBARA FROEK   

Pack your diet with vitamins that specifically benefit your skin. Photo Credit Design Pics/Design Pics/Getty Images

Dark under eye circles are a common skin problem that causes you to look exhausted and older than your actual age. Vitamins are essential for your skin, and boosting your intake of certain vitamins may help return your skin to its natural glowing state. However, factors outside of nutrients influence your skin's condition, such as sun exposure, smoking, genetics and natural aging, so you shouldn't count on vitamins to be a miracle cure.

Fight Dark Circles

Niacin, or vitamin B-3, belongs to a group of eight B vitamins that help keep you healthy. Taking a niacin supplement or getting it from your diet may help eliminate dark circles by increasing circulation to the skin below your eyes and fighting inflammation, writes naturopathic physician Alan Logan in his book "The Clear Skin Diet." The University of Maryland Medical Center confirms that niacin does help improve circulation and may reduce inflammation. Keep in mind, however, that clinical studies which demonstrate that B-3 gets rid of dark circles are lacking.

Wrinkle Prevention

Whether it's crow's feet or smile lines, women everywhere dread the appearance of wrinkles. Boosting your intake of wrinkle-fighting vitamins may help prevent wrinkles from forming. Vitamin E and C have anti-wrinkle benefits, according to Logan. In an animal study, a supplement mixture of vitamins E, C and evening primrose oil, enhanced collagen production, effectively preventing wrinkles from forming in response to sun exposure. The study was published in the October, 2007 issue of the journal "Photodermatology, Photoimmunology, Photomedicine."

Overall Skin Health

Vitamin A is perhaps most widely known for its skin benefits. The cells in your skin are very sensitive to vitamin A levels, and Vitamin A plays a vital role toward keeping your skin healthy. Vitamin A protects your skin from sun damage and helps repair your skin, in the event that sun damage occurs, according to Oregon State University. It also plays a crucial role in keeping the collagen in your skin balanced. Collagen is the major structural protein that makes up your connective tissues. Vitamin A may also help improve acne, according to OSU.

Where to Get Them

The best place to get vitamins is from your diet. Luckily, vitamins A, C and E are easy to get from a variety of foods. The richest sources of vitamin C include citrus fruits such as oranges and grapefruit, as well as cantaloupe, mango, papaya and pineapple. The most concentrated sources of vitamin A are sweet potato, pumpkin, carrots, squash and green, leafy vegetables. The recommended daily intake is 700 to 900 micrograms of vitamin A; 75 to 90 micrograms of vitamin C and 15 milligrams of vitamin E.

www.livestrong.com

The Difference Between Eye Puffiness & Eye Bags

by DENISE STERN  

A number of factors can cause eye puffiness or bags under the eyes. Photo Credit Stacey Newman/E+/Getty Images

Your eyes are often the first thing a person notices. Tired-looking eyes may cause you to appear ill to others. A number of factors can cause eye puffiness or bags under the eyes. Knowing the major difference between the two can help you determine ways to alleviate them.

Eye Bags

Bags are created as the skin stretches and sags due to loss of muscle tone, and fat accumulates beneath the eye socket. Retro-orbital or fat pockets naturally surround the eyes, protecting them from bumps and bruises. Bags under the eyes are also called blepharochalasis, most often seen under the lower eyelid. Bags around the upper eyelids are often caused by drooping eyebrows, which in turn increase downward pressure and gravity on the upper lids and create bulging pockets around the upper lid and corners of the eyes.

Eye Puffiness

Slightly swollen eyelids, sagging or excess skin and dark circles under the eyes often give them a bruised, tired-looking appearance. This puffiness is noted around the entire eye, while eye bags are usually prominently displayed beneath the eye. Puffiness is also a sign of aging, loose skin, states Dr. Paul Lazar, a Northwestern University clinical dermatology professor.

Causes

Eye bags, or under-eye puffiness that looks like crescents is caused by a number of factors—including some medical conditions, obesity, allergies and aging processes—according to Dr. Michael Bermant, a American board-certified plastic surgeon. However, eye bags are most commonly caused by an accumulation of fluid beneath the lower eyelid. Eye puffiness may be caused by inadequate sleep, medical conditions like dermatitis or allergies, and fluid retention caused by hormones or salty foods, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Remedies

Eye bags are often treated through a plastic surgical procedure called blepharoplasty, where excess fat and skin are removed from around the eye to create a more youthful, fresh appearance. For eye puffiness, cold compresses placed over the eyes may help reduce the appearance of swollen or sagging skin following mild pressure for several minutes. Allergy medications may also help relieve some puffiness or swelling around the eyes, suggests the Mayo Clinic. Tapping the upper and lower eyelids can help displace the fluid and reduce puffiness and swelling, as can moistened tea bags placed on closed eyelids for about 15 minutes.

Caution

Because eye puffiness or bags may be caused by a medical condition such as kidney or thyroid problems, consult a doctor if home remedies don't alleviate the problem.

www.livestrong.com

How to Decrease Under Eye Puffiness With Essential Oils

by CAROL SARAO 

Small file of coconut oil. Photo Credit OlgaMiltsova/iStock/Getty Images

Under eye puffiness, also referred as bags under the eyes, becomes more common as you age. Skin tissues weaken and sag, causing fluid to accumulate beneath the eyes and creating a swollen appearance. Allergies, eczema, smoking, water retention and sleeping face down can aggravate the condition, with heredity playing a role as well; some people are affected more than others. Although under eye puffiness is unsightly, it is usually a sign of nothing more serious than growing older. You don't have to take under eye puffiness lying down, however. You can minimize the appearance of bags -- and maybe even reduce them -- by using natural essential oils.

Step 1

Add a drop of lavender oil and a drop of lemon oil to one teaspoon of distilled water and massage the solution under your eyes just before bedtime. Sleep with your head well supported by pillows.

Step 2

Mix two drops of chamomile essential oil with two ounces of witch hazel and chill the solution well in the refrigerator. Dampen cotton balls and swab the mixture under your eyes. The coldness of the liquid helps to shrink tissues while the witch hazel has an astringent, tightening effect and the chamomile oil has anti-irritant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Step 3

Massage under your eyes with pure almond oil daily for two weeks. Almond oil has emollient properties that help your skin to balance water loss; it can also relieve irritation and inflammation.

Step 4

Mix three drops of rosemary oil with a tablespoon of shea butter and massage under your eyes, using a circular motion with the pads of your fingertips. According to the The Healthier Life website, rosemary oil, which contains the anti-inflammatory agents ceffeic acid and rosemarinic acid, has rejuvenating effects and can act as a mild diuretic to reduce swelling. It also helps to strengthen capillaries and reduce inflammation.

Warnings

• Since lemon oil is a photo-toxic oil, you should not use it before going out in the sun.
• Before using these treatments, apply a tiny amount to the inside of your elbow 24 hours before use to make sure you are not allergic to any of the ingredients.

Things You'll Need

• 1 drop lavender oil
• 1 drop lemon oil
• 1 teaspoon distilled water
• 2 drops chamomile oil
• 2 ounces witch hazel
• Cotton balls
• Almond oil
• 3 drops rosemary oil
• 1 tablespoon shea butter

www.livestrong.com

Diet to Alleviate Eye Fluid Retention

by LYNNE SHELDON 

Eating watermelon can help relieve fluid retention.Photo Credit Jupiterimages/BananaStock/Getty Images

If you are retaining fluid, you can become puffy all over, including under your eyes. When fluid collects beneath your eyes, it creates bags, which can make you look tired and older than you are. Changing your diet to alleviate fluid retention can help your eyes look less puffy. However, check with your doctor before altering your diet, and keep in mind that fluid retention can also be a sign of an underlying condition.

Fruits and Vegetables

A diet rich in fresh fruits and vegetables has a variety of health benefits, such as lowering fluid retention. Consuming produce can lead to more frequent urination, helping to relieve bloating and puffy eyes. Aim to emphasize veggies and fruits that are rich in water, such as cucumbers, onions, celery and watermelon. Try to include one or more of these in every meal, and you can also eat them as snacks.

Low Sodium

Cutting back on sodium is a good way to alleviate fluid retention in the area around your eyes, as well as the rest of your body. U.S. diets tend to be very high in salt, and this can cause your eyes to become puffy. Keep your sodium intake at 2,300 mg a day or lower, and watch out for hidden salt in processed foods, such as chips, pickles, pizza, cold cuts and soups. Soy sauce also contains a high amount of sodium: typically 1,000 mg in one tbsp. By consuming more fresh, unprocessed items and no longer seasoning your food with salt, you can significantly decrease your sodium intake and relieve the puffiness in your eyes.

Water and Alcohol

It might seem counterintuitive, but drinking more water can help alleviate fluid retention as well because it causes you to urinate more frequently, discouraging the fluid from accumulating in your eyes and other areas. You should drink at least eight cups of water a day or more, if your doctor recommends it, or if you are consuming alcohol. Drinking alcohol can also lead to water retention, and cutting back on it can help relieve this. If you do drink, do so in moderation, and be sure to sip water along with your alcoholic beverage to stay hydrated and discourage fluid retention.

Additional Considerations

Puffy eyes can also be symptomatic of seasonal allergies or not getting enough sleep, in which case, altering your diet might not help. See your doctor if you are concerned about your puffy eyes, or if you are retaining fluid all over your body, as this could be the sign of a serious problem. Edema, or swelling in your bodily tissues, can be the result of sunburn or eating too much salt, as well as a sign of liver or lymph node problems. If you experience this, seek medical attention.

www.livestrong.com