Cellulose Microfibril from Banana Peels as a Nanoreinforcing Fillers for Zein Films

Author

Manisara Phiriyawirut, Parichat Maniaw

Affiliation(s)

Department of Tool and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand.

DOI: 10.4236/ojpchem.2012.22007 

BSTRACT

Cellulose microfibril (CMF) was the extraction with acid mixture from peel of Musa sapientum Linn type of banana (Kluai Nam Wa). The fibrous-shape of CMF interconnected weblike structure with the average diameter 26 nm were observed by TEM. In order to prepare zein/CMF nanocomposite films, 16% wt zein solution was prepared by dissolved in 80% ethanol aqueous solution which contain glycerol 20% w/w. The suspension of CMF and zein solution was mixed with 0% - 5% weight fractions of solid CMF in zein matrix. The morphology of the zein films is more roughness by increased amount of cellulose microfibrils. It was found that as CMF content increase from 0 to 5% wt results in increasing tensile strength and Young’s modulus of zein nanocomposite films. The highest strength obtains at 4% wt CMF.

KEYWORDS

Zein; Cellulose Microfibril; Nanocomposite; Reinforcement

Cite this paper

M. Phiriyawirut and P. Maniaw, "Cellulose Microfibril from Banana Peels as a Nanoreinforcing Fillers for Zein Films," Open Journal of Polymer Chemistry, Vol. 2 No. 2, 2012, pp. 56-62. doi: 10.4236/ojpchem.2012.22007.

References

[1]	Y. Li, Y.-W. Mai and L. Ye, “Sisal Fibre and Its Composites: A Review of Recent Developments,” Composites Science and Technology, Vol. 60, No. 11, 2000, pp. 2037-2055.
[2]	J. Prachayawarakorn, P. Sangnitidej and P. Boonpasith, “Properties of Thermoplastic Rice Starch Composites Reinforced by Cotton Fiber or Low-Density Polyethylene,” Carbohydrate Polymers, Vol. 81, No. 2, 2010, pp. 425-433.
[3]	H. Ismail, S. Shuhelmy and M. R. Edyham, “The Effects of a Silane Coupling Agent on Curing Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo Fibre Filled Natural Rubber Composites,” European Polymer Journal, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2002, pp. 39-47.
[4]	N. Soykeabkaew, P. Supaphol and R. Rujiravanit, “Preparation and Characterization of Jute- and Flax-Reinforced Starch-Based Composite Foams,” Carbohydrate Polymers, Vol. 58, No. 1, 2004, pp. 53-63.
[5]	T. Nishino, K. Hirao, M. Kotera, K. Nakamae and H. Inagaki, “Kenaf Reinforced Biodegradable Composite,” Composites Science and Technology, Vol. 63, No. 9, 2003, pp. 1281-1286.
[6]	M. Phiriyawirut, P. Saenpong, S. Chalermboon, R. Sooksakoolrut, N. Pochanajit, L. Vuttikit, A. Thongchai and P. Supaphol, “Isotactic Poly(Propylene)/Wood Sawdust Com- posite: Effects of Natural Weathering, Water Immersion, and Gamma-Ray Irradiation on Mechanical Properties,” Macromolecular Symposia, Vol. 264, No. 1, 2008, pp. 59-66.
[7]	M. A. S. Azizi Samir, F. Alloin and A. Dufresne, “Review of Recent Research into Cellulosic Whiskers, Their Properties and Their Application in Nanocomposite Field,” Biomacromolecules, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2005, pp. 612-626.
[8]	A. Turbak, F. Snyder and K. Sandberg, “Suspensions Containing Microfibrillated Cellulose,” US Patent No. 4378381, 1983.
[9]	E. Dinand, H. Chanzy and M. R. Vignon, “Suspension of Cellulose Microfibrils from Sugar Beet Pulp,” Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. 13, No. 3, 1999, pp. 275-283.
[10]	A. Dufresne and M. Vignon, “Improvement of Starch Film Performances Using Cellulose Microfibrils,” Macromolecules, Vol. 31, No. 8, 1998, pp. 2693-2696.
[11]	T. Imai, J. L. Putaux and J. Sugiyama, “Geometric Phase Analysis of Lattice Images from Algal Cellulose Microfibrils,” Polymer, Vol. 44, No. 6, 2003, pp. 1871-1879.
[12]	M. E. Melainine, A. Dufresne, D. Dupeyre, M. Mahrouz, R. Vuong and M. Vignon, “Structure and Morphology of Cladobes and Spines of Opuntia Ficus-Indica. Cellulose Extraction and Characterization,” Carbohydrate Polymers, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2003, pp. 77-83.
[13]	R. Zuluaga, J. L. Putaux, A. Restrepo, I. Mondragon and P. Ganan, “Cellulose Microfibrils from Banana Farming Residues: Isolation and Characterization,” Cellulose, Vol. 14, No. 6, 2007, pp. 585-592.
[14]	M. Phiriyawirut, N. Chotirat, S. Phromsiri and I. Lohapaisarn, “Preparation and Properties of Natural Rubber- Cellulose Microfibril Nanocomposite Films,” Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 93-94, 2010, pp. 328-331.
[15]	M. Neus Anglès and A. Dufresne, “Plasticized Starch/ Tunicin Whiskers Nanocomposites: 1. Structural Analysis,” Macromolecules, Vol. 33, No. 22, 2000, pp. 8344-8353.
[16]	J. Sriupayo, P. Supaphol, J. Blackwell and R. Rujiravanit, “Preparation and Characterization of α-Chitin Whisker- Reinforced Chitosan Nanocomposite Films with or without Heat Treatment,” Carbohydrate Polymer, Vol. 62, No. 2, 2005, pp. 130-136.
[17]	L. Chazeau, J. Y. Cavaille, G. Canova, R. Dendievel and B. Boutherin, “Viscoelastic Properties of Plasticized PVC Reinforced with Cellulose Whiskers,” Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 71, No. 11, 1999, pp. 1797-1808.
[18]	J. K. Sears and J. R. Darby, “Mechanism of Plasticizer Action,” In: J. K. Sears and J. R. Darby, Eds., The Technology of Plasticizers, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1982, pp. 35-77.
[19]	R. Paramawati, T. Yoshino and S. Isobe, “Effect of Degradable Plasticizer on Tensile and Barrier Properties of Single Plasticized-Zein Film,” Journal of Engineering Pertanian, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2003, pp. 49-57.
[20]	D. Gioia, L. Guilbert and S. Guilbert, “Corn Protein-Based Thermoplastic Resins: Effect of Some Polar and Amphiphilic Plasticizers,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 47, No. 3, 1999, pp. 1254-1261.
[21]	E. L. Hult, T. Iversen and J. Sugiyama, “Characterization of the Supermolecular Structure of Cellulose in Wood Pulp Fibres,” Cellulose, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2003, pp. 103-110.
[22]	J. Lu, T. Wang and L. T. Drzal, “Preparation and Properties of Microfibrillated Cellulose Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite Materials,” Composites: Part A, Vol. 39, No. 5, 2008, pp. 768-746.
[23]	N. Parris and D. R. Coffin, “Composition Factors Affecting the Water Vapor Permeability and Tensile Properties of Hydrophilic Zein Films,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 45, No. 5, 1997, pp. 1596-1599.
[24]	J. X. Sun, X. F. Sun, H. Zhao, R. C. Sun, “Isolation and Characterization of Cellulose from Sugarcane Bagasse,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol. 84, No. 2, 2004, pp. 331-339.
[25]	F. X. Santosa and G. W. Padua, “Thermal Behavior of Zein Sheet Plasticized with Oleic Acid,” Cereal Chemistry, Vol. 77, No. 4, 2000, pp. 459-462.
[26]	B. Ghanbarzadeh, A. R. Oromiehie, M. Musavi, Z. E. D-Jomeh, E. R. Rad and J. Milani, “Effect of Plasticizing Sugars on Rheological and Thermal Properties of Zein Resins and Mechanical Properties of Zein Films,” Food Research International, Vol. 39, No. 8, 2006, pp. 882-890.
[27]	J. Magoshi, S. Nakamura and K. I. Murakamiki, “Structure and Physical Properties of Seed Proteins, Glass Transition and Crystallization of Zein Protein from Corn,” Jour- nal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 45, No. 11, 1992, pp. 2043-2048.

For further details log on website :
http://www.scirp.org/(S(i43dyn45teexjx455qlt3d2q))/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=19531

Review of Green Polymer Nanocomposites

Author

DOI: 10.4236/jmmce.2012.114028    

Author(s)   

Samson O. Adeosun, G. I. Lawal, Sambo A. Balogun, Emmanuel I. Akpan

Affiliation(s)

Department of Materials and Production Engineering, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria.
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Recently, attention has been drawn to the use of bio-reinforced composites in automotive, construction, packaging and medical applications due to increased concern for environmental sustainability. Green polymer nanocomposites show unique properties of combining the advantages of natural fillers and organic polymers. Plant fibers are found suitable to reinforce polymers. They have relatively high strength and stiffness, low cost of acquisition, low density and produce low CO₂emission. They are also biodegradable and are annually renewable compared to other fibrous materials. Organic polymers on the other hand, are desirable because they are either recyclable or biodegradable without causing environmental hazards. This paper reviews current research efforts, techniques of production, trends, challenges and prospects in the field of green nanocomposites.

KEYWORDS

bio-reinforced composites; organic polymers; plant fibers; mechanical properties; environmental friendly

Cite this paper

S. Adeosun, G. Lawal, S. Balogun and E. Akpan, "Review of Green Polymer Nanocomposites," Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, Vol. 11 No. 4, 2012, pp. 385-416. doi: 10.4236/jmmce.2012.114028.

References

[1]	Hay, J.N.; Shaw, S.J. Nanocomposites—properties and applications. Available online: http://www.azom.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=921 (accessed on August 15, 2010)
[2]	Njuguna, J.; Pielichowski, K.; Desai, S. Nanofiller-reinforced polymer nanocomposites. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2008, 19, 947-959.
[3]	Leja, K.; Lewandowicz, G. Polymer biodegradation and biodegradable polymers—a review. Polish J. Environ. Stud. 2010, 19, 255-266.
[4]	TPA Plast global Engineering Nanocomposite polymers. http://www.tpacomponents.com/uploads/pdf/en/0305_EN.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2010).
[5]	Drzal, L.T. Sustainable Biodegradable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastic for Automotive applications. http//www.egr.msu.edu/cmsc/biomaterials/index.html (accessed on 20 August 2010).
[6]	Jamshidian, M.; Tehrany, E.A.; Imran M.; Jacquot M.; Desobry S. Poly-lactic acid: Production, applications, nanocomposites, and release studies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2010, 9, 552-571.
[7]	Amass, W.; Amass, A.; Tighe, B.A review of biodegradable polymers: Uses, current developments in the synthesis and characterization of biodegradable polyesters, blends of biodegradable polymers and recent advances in biodegradation studies. Polym. Int. 1998, 47, 89-144.
[8]	Chandra, R.; Rustgi, R. Biodegradable polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 1998, 23, 1273-1335.
[9]	Mohanty, A.K.; Misra, M.; Hinrichsen, G. Biofibres, biodegradable polymers and biocomposites: An overview. Macrmol Mater Eng. 2000, 276/277, 1-24.
[10]	Siracusa, V.; Rocculi, P.; Romani, S.; Rosa, M.D. Biodegradable polymers for food packaging: a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 19, 634-643.
[11]	Pandey, J.K.; Chu, W.S.; Lee, C.S.; Ahn, S.H. Preparation characterization and performance evaluation of nanocomposites from natural fiber reinforced biodegradable polymer matrix for automotive applications. Presented at the International Symposium on Polymers and the Environment: Emerging Technology and Science, BioEnvironmental Polymer Society (BEPS), Vancouver, WA, USA, 17–20 October 2007.
[12]	Sinha, S.R.; Bousmina, M. Biodegradable polymer/layered silicate nanocomposites. In Polymer Nanocomposites; Mai, Y., Yu, Z., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing and Maney Publishing: Cambridge, England, pp. 57-129.
[13]	John, M.J.; Thomas, S. Biofibres and biocomposites. Carbohyd. Polym. 2008, 71, 343-364.
[14]	Carvalho, A.J.F.; Curvelo, A.A.S.; Agnelli, J.A.M.A. First insight on composites of thermoplastic starch and kaolin. Carbohyd. Polym. 2001, 45, 189-194.
[15]	Pandey, J.K.; Singh, R.P. Green nanocomposites from renewable resources: Effect of plasticizer on the structure and material properties of clay-filled starch. Starch/St?rke 2005, 57, 8-15.
[16]	Guan, J.; Hanna, M.A. Selected morphological and functional properties of extruded acetylated starch-cellulose foams. Bioresource Technol. 2006, 97, 1716-1726.
[17]	Kumar, A.P.; Singh, R.P. Biocomposites of cellulose reinforced starch: Improvement of properties by photo-induced crosslinking. Bioresource Technol. 2008, 99, 8803-8809.
[18]	Lu, Y.; Weng, L.; Cao, X. Morphological, thermal and mechanical properties of ramie crystallites—reinforced plasticized starch biocomposites. Carbohyd. Polym. 2006, 63, 198-204.
[19]	Ma, X.F.; Yu, J.G.; Wang, N. Fly ash-reinforced thermoplastic starch composites. Carbohyd. Polym. 2007, 67, 32-39.
[20]	Svagan, A. Bio-inspired cellulose Nanocomposites and foams based on starch matrix. PhD thesis, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Chemical Science and Engineering, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden, 2008.
[21]	Famá, L.; Gerschenson, L.; Goyanes, S. Starch-vegetable fiber composites to protect food products. Carbohyd. Polym. 2009, 75, 230-235.
[22]	Kaushik, A.; Singh, M.; Verma, G. Green nanocomposites based on thermoplastic starch and steam exploded cellulose nanofibrils from wheat straw. Carbohyd. Polym. 2010, 82, 337-345.
[23]	Liu, D.; Zhong, T.; Chang, P.R.; Li, K.; Wu, Q. Starch composites reinforced by bamboo cellulosic crystals. Bioresource Technol. 2010, 101, 2529-2536.
[24]	Guimar?es, J.L.; Wypych, F.; Saul, C.K.; Ramos, L.P.; Satyanarayana, K.G. Studies of the processing and characterization of corn starch and its composites with banana and sugarcane fibers from Brazil. Carbohyd. Polym. 2010, 80, 130-138.
[25]	Kaith, B.S.; Jindal, R.; Jana, A.K.; Maiti, M. Development of corn starch based green composites reinforced with Saccharum spontaneum L fiber and graft copolymers—Evaluation of thermal, physico-chemical and mechanical properties. Bioresource Technol. 2010, 101, 6843-6851.
[26]	Ogata, N.; Jimenez G.; Kawai H.; Ogihara T. Structure and thermal/mechanical properties of poly(L-lactide)-clay blend. J. Polym. Sci. Part B: Polym. Phys. 1997, 35, 389-96.
[27]	Sinha, R.S.; Okamoto, K.; Yamada, K.; Okamoto, M. Novel porous ceramic material via burning of polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposite. Nano Letts. 2002, 2, 423-426.
[28]	Sinha, R.S.; Yamada K.; Okamoto, M.; Ueda, K. New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposite: A novel biodegradable material. Nano Letts. 2002, 2, 1093-1096.
[29]	Sinha, R.S.; Maiti P.; Okamoto, M.; Yamada, K.; Ueda, K. New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites. 1. Preparation, characterization and properties. Macromolecule 2002 35, 3104-3110.
[30]	Sinha, R.S.; Yamada, K.; Ogami A.; Okamoto, M.; Ueda, K. New polylactide layered silicate nanocomposite: Nanoscale control of multiple properties. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2002, 23, 493-497.
[31]	Sinha, R.S.; Okamoto, M.; Yamada, K.; Ueda, K. New biodegradable polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites: Preparation, characterization and materials properties. Macromolecules 2002, 35, 659-660.
[32]	Sinha, R.S.; Okamoto, M.; Yamada, K.; Ueda, K. New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites: Concurrent improvement of materials properties and biodegradability. Polymer 2003, 44, 857-866.
[33]	Yamada, K.; Ueda, K.; Sinha, R.S.; Okamoto, M. Preparation and properties of polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites. Kobunshi Robunshu 2002, 59, 760-765.
[34]	Maiti, P.; Yamada, K., Okamoto, M, Ueda, K, Okamoto, K New polylactide/ layered silicate Nanocomposites: role of organoclay. Chem. Mater. 2002, 14, 4654-4661.
[35]	Paul, M.A.; Alexandre, M.; Degee, P.; Calberg, C.; Jerome, R.; Dubois, P. Exfoliated polylactide/clay nanocomposites by in-situ coordination-insertion polymerization. Macromol Rapid Commun 2003, 24, 561-566.
[36]	Lee, J.H.; Park, T.G.; Park, H.S.; Lee, D.S.; Lee, Y.K.; Yoon, S.C.; Nam, J.D. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of poly(L-lactic acid) nanocomposite scaffold. Biomaterials 2002, 24, 2773-2778.
[37]	Chang, J.; An, Y.U.; Cho, D.; Giannelis E.P. Poly (lactic acid) nanocomposites: Comparison of their properties with montmorillonite and synthetic mica (II). Polymer 2003, 44, 3715–3720.
[38]	Bondeson, D.; Oksman, K. Dispersion and characteristics of surfactant modified cellulose whiskers nanocomposites. Compos. Interface. 2007, 14, 617-630.
[39]	Lee, S.; Kang, I.; Doh, G.; Yoon, H.; Park, B.; Wu, Q. Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Wood Flour/Talc-filled Polylactic Acid Composites: Effect of Filler Content and Coupling Treatment. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2008, 21, 209-223.
[40]	Qu, P.; Gao, Y.; Wu, G.; Zhang, L. Nanocomposites of poly (lactic acid) reinforced with cellulose nanofibrils. BioResources 2010, 5, 1811-1823.
[41]	Misra, M.; Park, H.; Mohanty, A.K.; Drzal, L.T. Injection molded ‘Green’ nanocomposite materials from renewable resources. Presented at the Global Plastics Environmental Conference, Detroit, MI, USA, 18–19 February 2004.
[42]	Mahadeva, S.K.; Yun, S.; Kim, J. Flexible humidity and temperature sensor based on cellulose-polypyrrole nanocomposite. Sensor. Actuator. A Phys. 2011, 165, 194-199
[43]	Tun?, S.; Duman, O. Preparation of active antimicrobial methyl cellulose/carvacrol/montmorillonite nanocomposite films and investigation of carvacrol release. Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 44, 465-472.
[44]	Zimmermann, K.A.; LeBlanc, J.M.; Sheets, K.T.; Fox, R.W.; Gatenholm, P. Biomimetic design of a bacterial cellulose/hydroxyapatite nanocomposite for bone healing applications. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2011, 31, 43-49.
[45]	Zadegan, S.; Hosainalipour, M.; Rezaie, H.R.; Ghassai, H.; Shokrgozar, M.A. Synthesis and biocompatibility evaluation of cellulose/hydroxyapatite nanocomposite scaffold in 1-n-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2011, 31, 954-961.
[46]	Sithique, M.A.; Alagar, M. Preparation and Properties of Bio-Based Nanocomposites from Epoxidized Soy Bean Oil and Layered Silicate. Malaysian Polym. J. 2010, 5, 151-161.
[47]	Azeredo, H.M.C.; Mattoso, L.H.C.; Wood, D.; Williams, T. G.; Avena-Bustillos, R.J.; Mchugh, T.H. Nanocomposite edible films from mango puree reinforced with cellulose nanofibers. J. Food Sci. 2009, 74, 31-35.
[48]	Tate, J.S.; Akinola, A.T.; Kabakov, D. Bio-based Nanocomposites: An Alternative to Traditional Composites. J. Technol. Stud. 2010, 1, 25-32.
[49]	Ke, T.Y.; Sun, X.Z. Effects of moisture content and heat treatment on the physical properties of starch and poly(lactic acid) blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2001, 81, 3069-82.
[50]	Uesaka, T; Nakane, K; Maeda, S; Ogihara, T.; Ogata, N. Structure and physical properties of poly(butylene succinate)/cellulose acetate blends. Polymer 2000, 41, 8449-54.
[51]	Kesel, C.D.; Wauven, C.V.; David, C. Biodegradation of polycaprolactone and its blends with poly(vinylalcohol) by micro-organisms from a compost of house-hold refuse. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 1997, 55, 107-113.
[52]	Averous, L.; Fauconnier, N.; Moro, L. Fringant Blends of thermoplastic starch and polyesteramide: Processing and properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2000, 76, 1117-1128.
[53]	Willett, J.L.; Shogren, R.L. Processing and properties of extruded starch/polymer foams. Polymer 2002, 43, 5935-5947.
[54]	Martin, O.; Averous, L. Poly (lactic acid): Plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems. Polymer 2001, 42, 6209-6219.
[55]	Sarazin, P.; Li, G.; Orts, W.J.; Favis, B.D. Binary and ternary blends of polylactide, polycaprolactone and thermoplastic starch. Polymer 2008, 49, 599-609.
[56]	Majdzadeh-Ardakani, K.; Sadeghi-Ardakani, Sh. Experimental investigation of mechanical properties of Starch/natural rubber/clay nanocomposites. Digest J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 2010, 5, 307-316.
[57]	Maiti, P.; Batt, C.A.; Giannelis, E.P. Renewable plastics: Synthesis and properties of PHB nanocomposites. Polym. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2003, 88, 58-59.
[58]	Zheng, J.P.; Li, P.; Ma, Y.L.; Yao, K.D. Gelatine/montmorillonite hybrid nanocomposite. I. Preparation and properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002, 86, 1189-1194.
[59]	Takegawa, A.; Murakami, M.; Kaneko, Y.; Kadokawa, J. Preparation of chitin/cellulose composite gels and films with ionic liquids. Carbohyd. Polym. 2010, 79, 85-90.
[60]	Nunes, M.R.S.; Silva, R.C.; Silva, J.G., Jr.; Tonholo, J.; Ribeiro, A.S. Preparation and morphological characterization of chitosan/clay nanocomposites. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Advanced Materials, Rio de jenero, Brazil, 20–25 September 2009; pp. 20-25.
[61]	Pothan, L.A.; Thomas, S. Polarity parameters and dynamic mechanical behavior of chemically modified banana fiber reinforced polyester composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2003, 63, 1231-1240.
[62]	Zemljic, L.F.; Stenius, P.; Stana-kleinschek, J.; Ribitsch, V. Characterization of cotton fibers modified by carboxymethyl cellulose. Lenzinger Berichte 2006, 85, 68-76.
[63]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y.; Properties and potential application of natural cellulose fibers from the bark of cotton stalks. Bioresource Technol. 2009, 100, 3563-3569.
[64]	Wambua, P.; Ivens, J.; Verpoest, I. Natural fibers: Can they replace glass in fiber reinforced plastics? Compos. Sci. Technol. 2003, 63, 1259-1264.
[65]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Characterizing natural cellulose fibers from velvet leaf (Abutilon theophrasti) stems. Bioresource Technol. 2008, 99, 2449-2454.
[66]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Natural Cellulose fibers from switchgrass with tensile properties similar to cotton and linen. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2007, 97, 1021-1027.
[67]	Bodros, E.; Baley, C. Study of the tensile properties of stinging nettle fibers (Urtica dioica) Mater. Lett. 2008, 62, 2143-2145.
[68]	Batra, S.K. Other long vegetable fibers. In Handbook of Fiber Science and Technology; Lewi, N.M., Pearce, E.M. Eds.; Marcel Dekker Fiber Chemistry: New York, NY, USA, 1998; Volume 4, p. 727.
[69]	Goda, K.; Sreekala, M.S.; Gomes, A.; Kaji, T.; Ohgi, J. Improvement of plant based natural fibers for toughening green composites—Effect of load application during mercerization of ramie fibers. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2006, 37, 2213-2220.
[70]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Natural cellulose fibers from soybean straw. Bioresource Biotechnol. 2009, 100, 3593-3598.
[71]	Baley, C. Analysis of the flax fiber tensile behavior and analysis of the tensile stiffness increase. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2002, 33, 939-948.
[72]	Sain, M.; Panthapulakkal, S. Bioprocess preparation of wheat straw fibers and their characterization. Ind. Crops Products 2006, 23, 1-8.
[73]	Panthapulakka, S.; Zereshkian, A.; Sain, M. Preparation and characterization of wheat straw for reinforcing application in injection molded thermoplastic composites. Bioresource Biotechnol. 2006, 97, 265-272.
[74]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Properties of natural cellulose fibers from hop stems. Carbohyd. Polym. 2009, 77, 898-902.
[75]	Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Structure and properties of high quality natural cellulose fibers from corn stalks. Polymer 2005, 46, 5494-5500.
[76]	Vignon, M.R.; Dupeyre, D.; Garcia-Jaldon, C. Morphological characterization of steam exploded hemp fibers and their utilization in propylene-based composites. Bioresource Biotechnol. 1996, 58, 203-215.
[77]	Thwe, M.M.; Liao, K. Effects of environmental aging on the mechanical properties of bamboo-glass fiber reinforced polymer matrix hybrid composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2002, 33, 43-52.
[78]	Bodros, E.; Pillin, I.; Montrelay, N.; Baley, C. Could biopolymers reinforced by randomly scattered flax fiber be used in structural applications? Compos. Sci. Technol. 2007, 67, 462-470.
[79]	Singha, A.S.; Thakur, V.K. Mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. Bull. Mater. Sci. 2008, 31, 791-799.
[80]	Ochi, S. Mechanical properties of Kenaf fibers and Kenaf/PLA composites. Mech. Mater. 2008, 40, 446-452.
[81]	Reddy, N. Extraction and characterization of natural cellulose fibers from common milkweed stems. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2009, 49, 2212-2217. Available online: http://fidarticles.com/p/articles/ mi_hb3367/is_11_49/ai_n4510020/ (accessed on 17 August 2010).
[82]	Ave′rous, L.; Digabel, F.L. Properties of biocomposites based on lignocellulosic fillers. Carbohyd. Polym. 2006, 66, 480-493.
[83]	Averous, L.; Bouquillon, N. Biocomposites based on plasticized starch: Thermal and mechanical behaviours. Carbohyd. Polym. 2004, 56, 111-122.
[84]	Lei, Y.; Wu, Q.; Yao, F.; Xu, Y. Preparation and properties of recycled HDPE/natural fiber composites. Compos. Part A 2007, 38, 1664–1674.
[85]	Zabihzadeh, S.M. Water uptake and flexural properties of natural Filler/HDPE composites. BioResources 2010, 5, 316-323.
[86]	Teixeira, E.; Pasquini, D.; Antonio, A.S.; Corradini, C.E.; Belgacem, M.N.; Dufresne, A. Cassava baggasse cellulose nanofibrils reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch. Carbohydrate polymers 2009, 78, 422-431.
[87]	Huskic, M.; Igon, M.Z. PMMA/MMT nanocomposites prepared by one-step in situ intercalative solution polymerization. European Polymer Journal 2007, 43, 4891–4897.
[88]	Zou, H.; Wu, S.S.; Shen, J. Polymer/silica nanocomposites: preparation, characterization, properties, and applications. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 3893-3957.
[89]	Wei, L.; Hu, N.; Zhang, Y. Synthesis of polymer—Mesoporous silica nanocomposites. Materials 2010, 3, 4066-4079.
[90]	Ashori, A. Wood-plastic composites as promising green-composites for automotive industries! Bioresource Biotechnol. 2008, 99, 4661-4667.
[91]	Kim, J.P.; Yoon T.-H.; Mun S.P.; Rhee J.M.; Lee J.S. Wood-polyethylene composites using ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer as adhesion promoter. Bioresource Biotechnol. 2006, 97, 494-499.
[92]	Rong, M.Z.; Zhang, M.Q.; Liu, Y.; Yang, G.C.; Zeng, H.M. The effect of fiber treatment on the mechanical properties of unidirectional sisal-reinforced epoxy composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2001, 61, 1437-1447.
[93]	Qin, C.; Soykeabkaew N.; Xiuyuan N.; Peijs, T. The effect of fiber volume fraction and mercerization on the properties of all cellulose composites. Carbohyd. Polym. 2008, 71, 458-467.
[94]	George, E.R.; Sullivan, T.M.; Park, E.H. Preparation of high moisture content thermoplastic polyester starch. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1994, 34, 17-24.
[95]	Harada, M.; Ohya, T.; Iida, K.; Hayashi, H.; Hirano, K.; Fukuda, H. Increased impact strength of biodegradable poly (lactic acid)/poly (butylenes succinate) blend composites by using isocyanate as a reactive processing agent. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2007, 106, 1813-1820.
[96]	Demetrakakes, P. Nanocomposites raise barriers, but also face them: Clay based additives increase the barrier qualities of plastics, but obstacles to commercialization must be overcome. Food & Drug Packaging, (Available from: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi m0UQX/is 12 66/ai 96123509 (accessed on 19 October 2010).

For further details log on website :
http://www.scirp.org/(S(i43dyn45teexjx455qlt3d2q))/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=21051

EFI and its network of Associate Members is in a unique position to provide collective science-based insights at European and regional level to support informed policy making. EFI, with the involvement of its Associate Members, aims to: Conduct and promote interdisciplinary and cross-sector research, to address policy-relevant issues at a pan-European or regional level. Analyse and upscale information on forest resources, products and services on a pan-European level. Support the coordination, strengthening and networking of forest research capacities aiming to overcome the fragmentation of European forest research. Advocate for forest research within the forest sector, as well as within other scientific domains.

EFI makes use of its large network of Associate Member organisations and Regional Offices. As of early 2017, it has two European research thematic programmes on Bioeconomy and Resilience.

Research and Information products include European research projects, comparative studies, European databases and thematic maps, as well as decision-support tools for European and regional level forest policy decision making.

Research is carried out in flexible teams of experts among EFI’s own research staff and other experts, based on the given task. This includes research staff at its headquarters, as well as at its Regional Offices: EFIMED based in Barcelona, EFIATLANTIC  in Bordeaux, EFICEEC-EFISEE in Vienna and in Zagreb, and EFINORD in Umeå.

EFI has a Scientific Advisory Board, which advises the EFI in scientific matters, monitors EFI's R&D activities and anticipates future research needs. Regional Offices have their own Advisory Groups to support strategic development in those locations.

More information: Marc Palahí, Director (firstname.lastname(at)efi.int)

Photo by Yoshiyayo - Fotolia

For further information log on website :
http://www.efi.int/portal/research/

PUBLICATIONS : Forest Bioeconomy - a new scope for sustainability indicators

Read our latest publication!

Forest bioeconomy - a new scope for sustainability indicators

From Science to Policy 4
Published 15 November 2016

Bernhard Wolfslehner, Stefanie Linser, Helga Pülzl, Annemarie Bastrup-Birk, Andrea Camia, Marco Marchetti

More information

EFI currently publishes three report series and a triannual newsletter, EFI News.

The What Science Can Tell Us series is based on collective scientific expert reviews providing interdisciplinary background information on key and complex forest-related issues for policy and decision makers, citizens and society in general.

Policy Briefs convey current forest policy questions and challenges and outline courses of action to resolve them with the help of research.

The From Science to Policy series brings together cross-boundary scientific knowledge and expertise to strengthen science-policy dialogue.

Technical Reports (previously Internal Reports) are reviewed by an internal editorial board and published online only

EFI News - Read all about it! The latest research results, new projects, information on EFI events, news from EFI members: EFI NEWS brings all this to you twice a year in print, and with an additional issue in pdf-format only, free of charge. 

You may also be interested in:

• ThinkForest briefs
• Making a Difference - From Science to Policy brochures
• Project publications and final reports
• Publications and presentations by EFI researchers

For further information log on website :
http://www.efi.int/portal/virtual_library/publications/