Published Date July 2016, Vol.111:74–77,doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2016.04.026
Short communication
Title
Elevated tropospheric CO2and O3may not alter initial wood decomposition rate or wood-decaying fungal community composition of Northern Hardwoods
Author
Emmanuel Ebanyenle a,,
Andrew J. Burton a,
Andrew J. Storer a,
Dana L. Richter a,
Jessie A. Glaeser b,
aEcosystem Science Center, School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI, 49931-1295, USA
bCenter for Forest Mycology Research, US Forest Service, Northern Research Station, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
Received 3 February 2016. Revised 16 April 2016. Accepted 22 April 2016. Available online 30 April 2016.
Highlights
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Wood from trees grown in elevated CO2 and/or O3 did not have altered first-year decay rates.
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Wood-decaying fungal communities were unchanged by 12 years of elevated CO2and/or O3.
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Wood placement in elevated CO2 and/or O3 conditions did not significantly alter decomposition.
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Tree species differed in wood decay rate and the fungal communities involved.
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Elevated CO2 and O3 may impact wood decay by altering forest community composition.
Abstract
We examined the effects of elevated CO2 and/or O3 on the wood-decaying basidiomycete fungal community and wood decomposition rates at the Aspen Free-Air CO2 and O3 Enrichment (Aspen FACE) project. Mass loss rates were determined after one year of log decomposition on the soil surface, and wood-decaying basidiomycetes were isolated from decaying wood and identified via DNA sequencing. Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) and birch (Betula papyriferaMarshall) wood differed significantly in wood-decaying basidiomycete fungal communities and decomposition rate. Twelve years of site exposure to elevated CO2and/or O3 did not have significant effects on wood-decaying fungal communities. Growth under elevated CO2 and/or O3 did not produce wood that differed in decay rate from that grown under ambient atmospheric conditions. Similarly, wood decay rate was not altered significantly when decomposition occurred in elevated CO2and/or O3 environments. Our results suggest that wood-decaying fungal community composition and decomposition rates of northern hardwoods may not be directly affected by elevated tropospheric CO2 and O3.
People with diabetes respond negatively to glucose -- necessary energy derived from food.Photo Credit Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Getty Images
Overview
Diabetes, or diabetes mellitus, is a condition that affects how your body reacts to and utilizes glucose, or blood sugar--the body's main energy source derived from food. Numerous diabetes symptoms occur after eating, when glucose levels are directly affected in response to food. According to the National Diabetes Association, 5.7 million Americans have diabetes and don't realize they have it. If you experience symptoms of diabetes, seek guidance from your doctor.
Hunger After Eating
After a person eats, glucose from the food enters the blood stream and moves through the body and into its cells. Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, then converts the glucose into energy. Since people with diabetes do not have usual responses to glucose, they may suffer a drop in blood sugar, known as hypoglycemia. Hunger after eating is a common hypoglycemic symptom that affects people with diabetes. According to the National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse, hypoglycemia can come on suddenly and commonly occur after a person with diabetes makes inappropriate food choices, fails to take appropriate medication or overeats at a meal. Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol can also trigger a hypoglycemic response, such as hunger.
Added Thirst and Urination
People with diabetes may also experience high blood sugar, or hyperglycemia, after meals due to excess glucose build up in the blood. When this happens, your kidneys attempt to filter and absorb the excess sugar. When glucose levels are extremely high, the kidneys may be unable to keep up. Thus, excess sugar is excreted through urine, leading to frequent urination. As this happens, your thirst increases, causing further increased urination. According to the National Institutes of Health, excess thirst and frequent urination are some of the most common diabetes symptoms and are often the first symptoms people experience prior to diagnosis. In severe cases, excess or frequent urination is a symptom of ketoacidosis, a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes. For this reason, if your thirst and urination symptoms are severe, or if you experience additional symptoms such as excessively dry mouth, difficulty breathing, nausea, or vomiting, seek emergency medical attention.
Tiredness
While food is intended to provide food and energy, people with diabetes may feel tired, rather than energized after a meal, due to drops in blood sugar. This symptom most frequently occurs after a large or sugar-rich meal or dessert. Many people without diabetes experience mild, temporary tiredness after eating. For people with diabetes, however, tiredness after eating is a frequent, potentially-severe symptom. People diagnosed with diabetes usually learn to recognize such symptoms promptly and depend upon glucose tablets, fruit juice or foods containing glucose to increase their blood sugar to healthy levels before symptoms worsen. The NDIC suggests that those who experience diabetic symptoms, such as tiredness after meals several times per week, seek medical guidance.
There are many nerve endings in the feet.Photo Credit RossellaApostoli/iStock/Getty Images
The human body is hard-wired to experience stress, which is nature's way of letting us know we're in potentially hazardous situations. Unfortunately, the intent of this type of stress reaction was to encourage our prehistoric forefathers to flee from sharp-toothed predators and other types of environmental danger, a far cry from the stress inflicted by modern society. However, we still succumb to stress, and overexposure to cortisol and other hormones released during stress can lead to a variety of long-term health problems, ranging from heart disease to depression. Massage techniques such as reflexology are one way to lessen stress.
Reflexology
Reflexology is a variety of massage therapy in which pressure is applied to specific areas of the feet. Proponents of reflexology believe these areas contain pressure points that correspond directly to the body's organs and systems; when these parts of the foot are stimulated via strenuous massage, this releases the energy blockage that is thought to be responsible for the pain or disease affected by the corresponding organ of body system.
Stress Relief
In reflexology, the body and soul are divided into the four elements of earth, water, fire and air, with each element related to a specific part of the foot. The ball of the foot is associated with fire, which controls emotions such as fear and anger; reflexologists will typically focus on this area when attempting to alleviate stress. Reflexologists believe long-term stress is damaging to the body's endocrine system, which includes the pancreas, pineal gland and adrenal gland. The adrenal gland, which is triggered during the "fight or flight" response to danger, is associated with a small pea-shaped area beneath the ball of the foot, directly under the big toe. If you're not under much stress, this "pea" will feel like a small bag of sand; if you're under heavy stress, however, it may feel like a hard lump. If you are under a great deal of stress, you may find that manipulation of this area can be quite painful.
Blood Circulation
Although the health claims of reflexology haven't been scientifically proven, some studies have found that reflexology and other types of massage can relieve stress. For example, a study study was published in the October 2009 edition of "Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing," which tried to determine whether reflexology could help premenopausal middle-aged women improve blood circulation. Women performed reflexology on their own feet three times per week for six weeks. At the end of the study, researchers concluded that self-reflexology on one's foot can improve blood circulation and can also effectively decrease perceived stress and fatigue.
Reducing Anxiety
Another study undertaken at Anglia Ruskin University in the U.K., published in "Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice" in August 2007, examined the effectiveness of reflexology in a hospital or healthcare setting, with some participants undergoing reflexology and a control group receiving no treatment. The research determined that reflexology in this type of setting strongly reduced anxiety. The report ultimately concluded that, given the recognized connection between stress and well-being, the ability of reflexology to lessen stress may prove beneficial for patients.
A man is drinking from a mug.Photo Credit John Rowley/Photodisc/Getty Images
Many people rely on caffeine to get them up in the morning and sustain them throughout the day. However, high caffeine intake can increase the impact that physical and mental stress has on your body. Chronic stress can cause hormonal imbalances and other disruptions in your body that lead to an impaired immune system, raising the risk of developing infections and diseases such as cancer.
Caffeine in Your Body
Caffeine increases activity in your brain by inhibiting the neurotransmitter adenosine, a neurotransmitter that lowers levels of other neurotransmitters, keeping them in check. Caffeine also stimulates the sympathetic nervous system that is responsible for your fight-or-flight response. During the fight-or-flight response, stress hormones such as cortisol cause your body's stores of fat and sugar to be released in preparation for physical exertion.
Stress and the Immune System
Though this stress response is important for survival, when it persists it can cause health problems, including high blood sugar, elevated cholesterol and triglycerides and suppression of the immune system. Your immune system is responsible for recognizing and destroying pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses as well as removing damaged cells, both in the case of injuries and cells with abnormal behavior as well as those that produce cancer.
Caffeine Contribution
A 2006 study published in "Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior" found that men and women given large amounts of caffeine -- three 250-milligram doses -- experienced the release of higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol in response to physical and mental stress. Elevated cortisol levels are known to decrease the ability of your immune system to fight infections.
Caffeine Intake
It is unlikely that caffeine itself will detectably decrease the function of your immune system. According to the Huffington Post, low to moderate intake of caffeine has few known health effects. Limit your intake to 200 milligrams per day, or about 2 cups of coffee. If you exceed 500 milligrams per day, you may experience the effects of an activated sympathetic nervous system including insomnia, nervousness, irritability, digestive problems, fast heartbeat and muscle tremors.
Close-up of a glass of water being poured.Photo Credit al62/iStock/Getty Images
All diet plans have positives and negatives, and extreme diet plans such as one-day fasting are no exception. While proponents of one-day fasts suggest that such plans can be more effective than other weight loss plans, research suggests that fasting can be detrimental not only to your weight loss efforts but your overall health. Consult a doctor prior to starting any diet plan.
Appetite Control
If you're used to eating every day, starting a plan that includes one-day fasts can be difficult to adjust to. Even diets that allow you to eat every day are difficult due to the reduced calorie intake, so you may find it very difficult to deal with hunger when that reduced calorie intake has to sustain you for two days. According to a study from the January 2011 issue of "The Journal of Nutrition," reducing the frequency of your meals significantly reduces your ability to control your appetite. This may cause you to cheat on your diet or at the very least, make it unpleasant.
Fat Burning
Food provides your body with energy, so depriving your body of food may encourage it to burn stored fat for energy. Some research backs up this suggestion; a study published in the January 2005 issue of "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" found that fasting every other day promoted an increased rate of fat burning. Subjects participating in the one-day fasts burned 15 g more fat each day, which equates to 135 calories.
Exercise Intensity
If you're active or plan on engaging in exercise to enhance your weight loss, one-day fasts can be detrimental. A lack of food can compromise your exercise intensity; research published in the June 2007 edition of "British Journal of Sports Medicine" found that fasting significantly reduced endurance, speed and agility. Reduced exercise performance can inhibit your strength-gaining results and will also reduce the amount of calories you burn in each session, compromising weight loss. According to the study, reductions in performance remained for two weeks after the fasting period ended.
Insulin Sensitivity
Your dietary intake affects your hormone levels, and research suggests that some of the hormonal effects can be beneficial. A study published in the December 2005 edition of "Journal of Applied Physiology" found that fasting could promote improvements in insulin sensitivity. Improved insulin sensitivity may help you gain more muscle and keep fat at bay, although the foods you eat also have an effect on body composition.
Low self-esteem can result in awkward body language.Photo Credit Wavebreakmedia Ltd/Wavebreak Media/Getty Images
Your communication style can alter the way people perceive you, either increasing or decreasing your opportunities for employment, romance and friends. People with high self-esteem tend to have better communication skills. People with low self-esteem may struggle with communication, making it difficult for them to develop strong relationships and further lowering their self-esteem.
Assertive Communication
Assertive communication is the ability to express your needs in a proper way.Photo Credit Mike Watson Images/moodboard/Getty Images
Assertive communication is the ability to clearly express your needs in a way that is neither excessively aggressive nor unduly conciliatory. Assertive people have better luck negotiating job terms, communicating needs to their partners and managing conflict. However, low self-esteem can undermine assertive communication, according to East Bay Counseling Choices. This can cause people who already struggle with their self-esteem to get fewer needs met, potentially lowering their self-esteem even more.
Friendliness and Extraversion
Extroverted people tend to have higher self-esteem.Photo Credit Maridav/iStock/Getty Images
According to a 2001 study published in the "Journal of Research in Personality," extroverted people tend to have higher self-esteem. Extraversion can make it easier for people to approach strangers, talk in large groups and appear friendly. This can cause others to perceive extroverts more positively, potentially further boosting their self-esteem. People with low self-esteem may be anxious about talking to unfamiliar people and more uncomfortable in group settings
Body Language
Self-esteem plays a role in body language.Photo Credit Ezra Shaw/Digital Vision/Getty Images
According to a 2010 study published in "Obesity Facts," self-esteem can play a role in body language. The study found that obese women with low self-esteem were more likely to exhibit "closed" body language, providing less information to observers via their physical communication. Closed body language includes crossing your arms or "guarding" your body by hunching over to make yourself appear smaller and less assuming. People who struggle with low self-esteem may exhibit anxious or inappropriate body language that can alter how others perceive them. They may struggle with eye contact, fidget during conversation, or indulge in nervous habits such as nail-biting.
Internet Communication
Internet communication is an important part of work and social life.Photo Credit claudiobaba/iStock/Getty Images
Internet communication is an increasingly important part of work and social life. According to a 2005 study published in "CyberPsychology and Behavior," people with low self-esteem are more likely to misrepresent themselves online. Another study, published in the "Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication" in 2008, found that some people with low self-esteem use the Internet as a way to compensate. These people may try to become "popular" online, which means the Internet can help serve as an alternative communication channel for people who struggle with in-person communication.
A young woman stressed at her deskPhoto Credit John Howard/Photodisc/Getty Images
Dopamine, like norepinephrine, is a neurotransmitter in the brain that initiates adrenalin, a hormone, during the activation of the stress response. The stress response is generally self-regulating, ready to respond to a potential threat and then back down once the threat is lifted. When someone is constantly experiencing environmental stress, this is considered the threat that keeps the stress response system constantly turned on. Leaving the stress response on continuously creates a dangerous and potentially life-threatening condition for the body. This process floods the body with excess hormones, raises blood pressure and elevates blood sugar levels, creating a host physical and psychological problems
Dopamine, Stress and Locomotion
Dopamine rules motivational forces and psychomotor speed in the central nervous system. Under some stressful conditions, the activity of the stress response system will provide the energy needed to rise to a challenge or be spontaneous. "Focus," a journal of the American Psychiatric Association, suggests that during an event like a sports activity, the role of dopamine and the stress response trigger initiate to spur activity to get the job done and then return to a baseline, or normal, resting level. However, environmental stress such as working in a job that is unpleasant, navigating abusive relationships, financial strain and similarly prolonged events can leave the stress response system on, overworked, and a drain on all other body systems.
Dopamine, Stress and Thought-Processing
Dopamine and the over-secretion of stress hormones can have multiple effects on the thought-processing function of the brain. Those who are exposed to chronically stressful environments tend to exhibit memory deficits, poor concentration and have inadequate blood flow to the brain. The Franklin Institute suggests that chronic stress and depletion of dopamine in exchange for hormone flooding creates the internal body environment perfect for Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, heart disease and cancer in addition to numerous autoimmune disorders that can be disabling
Dopamine, Stress and Their Effect
Dopamine dyregulation seen during the stress response can affect our ability to experience pleasure. Excess stress depletes natural dopamine stores and creates a ripple effect on nearby edorphins. The endorphins are necessary to prevent pain and maintain good mood. According to the Franklin Institute, when dopamine and the endorphins malfunction, minor injuries can become major obstacles and experiences of both pain and misery are heightened. Previously enjoyed activities will no longer provide pleasure.
Dopamine, Stress and Autoimmune Disease
By dopamine instigating the release of stress hormones, the response can turn from good to bad quickly. If the body fails to return to its baseline levels at rest, the long-term consequences of activation can disrupt all organ processes. The "International Journal of Neuroscience" reports that cortisol and other stress hormones lead to chronic inflammation and will negatively impact the skin, cardiovascular, endocrine and digestive systems leaving the body susceptible to diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. In addition, it can lead to psychological problems related to anxiety, agitation, anger, attention-deficits, learning difficulties, depression, sleep disturbances and permanent memory loss.
Woman's walking shoe on concretePhoto Credit Rafal Olkis/iStock/Getty Images
If you enjoy walking every day, even casually, or if you are standing for long periods, then your shoe is one of your most important possessions. Sneakers are the best kind of shoe if you plan to do a lot of standing or walking. Because people use their shoes so much, it is important that your shoes have a great fit. Consider how lightweight and breathable the shoe is, whether the toe of the shoe is wide enough to allow your toes to move freely, and whether the heel area is snug enough so your heel won't slip when you walk. Shoes should also be flexible and have low heels. According to The Walking Site, " A walker's foot hits heel first and then rolls gradually from heel-to-toe. So, you will need a flexible sole and more bend in the toe than a runner. You should be able to twist and bend the toe area."
Common Pitfalls
A common mistake that people make when shopping for shoes is shopping in a hurry and buying the first pair of shoes they try on. It is unlikely that the first shoes you try will be the right pair for your feet. Take your time and shop around to find the perfect fit. Know your foot type before you buy--do you have flat feet or feet with high arches? Also, buy shoes after you have been on your feet for a while, giving your feet time to swell. This will help you find the right fit.
Where to Buy
While online stores offer a wider variety of sizes and widths to fit all feet, trying on shoes at a store known for its athletic shoes, like Foot Locker or Finish Line, allows you to experiment with different fits and brands so you can find the perfect shoe for your foot. Other vendors, including Ryka and The Walking Company, specialize in marketing comfortable shoes meant for long periods of walking or standing.
Cost
Shoes at The Walking Company cost between $100 and $250, but their shoes are designed for comfort. Ryka walking shoes cost around $60 to $70. If you shop for sneakers at The Foot Locker, expect to pay between $30 and $100.
Insider Tips
Before venturing outdoors, wear your shoes in the house for a few days to break them in and make sure they are going to work for you. If it doesn't seem like they are, exchange them.
Keep track of how many miles you walk. The Walking Site recommends that you replace your shoes every 300 to 600 miles. If you have a pair of walking shoes, wear them only for walks. If you have a pair of comfortable shoes for work, wear them only for work to extend the life of the shoe.
